Ancient Indian Literature, UPSC Notes PDF

Ancient Indian literature is a diverse collection of spiritual and secular works that have been passed down through generations as oral traditions. From the profound Vedas, including the Rigveda, to the epic tales of Ramayana and Mahabharata, it spans various genres. The Gupta period saw a literary flourish, with works encompassing songs, drama, poetry, allegories, comedies, philosophical discourses, and more, reflecting the diverse interests of the time.

Secular themes such as politics, romance, and philosophy were explored alongside religious ones. In the Southern part of India, Tamil literature emerged earliest, with Sangam literaturecovering politics, love, and war, followed by works in Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, which offered valuable insights into ancient history and culture.

The Vedic Literature

The Vedic period is the foundation of ancient Indian literature. It is a collection of sacred texts that were orally passed down for centuries before they were written. The Vedic literature is divided into distinct components.

• The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. 
  • The Rig Veda: Itis the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise of various gods. 
  • The Yajur Veda: It consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. 
  • The Sama Veda: It is set to tune to chant during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. 
  • The Atharva Veda: It contains details of rituals.
• Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata
• Vedic literature is categorised into Shruti (eternal, divine revelations) and Smriti (evolving supplementary texts). 
  • The former includes the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, andUpanishads, while the latter encompasses Vedanga, Shad Darshana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, and Upangas.
• Puranas: These are rich narrative collections featuring gods, demons, serpents, sages, and ancient kings. 
  • They were preserved through oral storytelling by bards known as Sutas and Kusilavas. 
• Tantra Literature: This presents an alternative spiritual path to Vedic practices, democratising spiritual pursuits beyond caste and gender barriers. 
  • Comprising Samhitas, Agamas, and Tantras, these texts are categorised into Jnana (knowledge), Yoga (meditation), Kriya (ritual action), and Carya (conduct). 
  • Tantra has profoundly influenced Hindu and Buddhist practices, emphasising mantra, yantra, and meditative techniques for spiritual enlightenment and divine union.

Classical Sanskrit Literature

Classical Sanskrit literature is a rich and diverse work spanning various genres and subjects. It includes:-

• Classical Sanskrit Poetry: The earliest surviving Sanskrit poetry is attributed to the Buddhist writer Ashvaghosa, who lived around the end of the 1st century CE.
  • Ashvaghosa is renowned for composing the Buddhacarita in a simple classical style.
  • The Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman, dated to CE 150, stands as the earliest surviving example of courtly Sanskrit prose.
  • Sanskrit poetry was primarily created for recitation or performance at court or among small circles of intellectuals.
  • Indian poets explored themes such as love, nature, panegyric, moralising, and storytelling.
• Narrative Poetry: Somadeva’s “Ocean of Story” (Katha-sarit-sagara) is a famous collection of popular stories, written in the 11th century. It features an ‘easy’ and ‘polished’ verse.Other notable works include:
  • Kalhana’s Chronicle of Kashmir: Known as “The River of Kings.”
  • “The Deeds of Harsha” by Bana.
  • “The Deeds of Vikramanka” by Bilhana.
• The Drama: The origins of Indian theatre are somewhat obscure, but references to dramatic performances during the Vedic period exist.
  • Sanskrit dramas vary in length, ranging from one-act plays to extensive works in ten acts.
  • Kalidasa, a celebrated playwright, has three surviving plays:
    • Malavikagnimitram: Narrates the love story of King Agnimitra and Malavika.
    • Vikramorvasiyam: Tells the tale of the love between Pururavas and Urvasi.
    • Abhijnanasakuntalam: Often considered Kalidasa’s ‘masterpiece.’
  • The earliest known surviving dramas are fragments by Ashvaghosa, while the oldest complete plays are attributed to Bhasa.
  • Other distinguished dramatists include Sudraka, Visakhadatta, and Bhavabhuti.
• Sanskrit Prose Literature: The Brahmanas contain the earliest surviving prose stories, followed by the Pali Jatakas.
  • Dandin’s Dasakumaracarita (Tales of the Ten Princes) is a notable collection of simple narrations.
  • Subandhu, another celebrated prose writer, penned “Vasavadatta'', a story detailing the romance between Vasavadatta and Prince Kandarpa Ketu. It is acclaimed for its ornate descriptions and linguistic mastery.
  • Bana, known for his unconventional views, compassion for the ‘poor and humble,’ and keen observations, wrote:
    • Harshacharita (Deeds of Harsha).
    • Kadambari.
  • Prose romances and stories in mixed prose and verse (campu) were composed but did not hold significant literary value.
  • The Panchatantra (“Five Treatises”), serving as a manual on niti (conduct) for kings and statesmen, features mostly prose stories interspersed with gnomic verses and exists in several versions.

Buddhist and Jain Literature

Buddhist Literature and Jain Literature are vast and encompass a wide range of texts that have played a crucial role in the development and propagation of their respective religions.

Sangam Literature

The Sangam Age (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE) in South India was a period of Tamil literature, marked by assemblies of poets and scholars.

Scientific and Technical Literature

The scientific and technical literature of ancient India is indeed fascinating, encompassing a wide range of subjects from statecraft and economics to medicine and astronomy.

Ancient Indian Literature UPSC PYQs

Question 1: Though not very useful from the point of view of a connected political history of South India, the Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness. Comment. (UPSC Mains 2013)

Question 2: With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts. (UPSC Prelims 2022)

1. Nettipakarana
2. Parishishtaparvan
3. Avadanashataka
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana

Which of the above are Jaina texts?

1. 1, 2 and 3
2. 2 and 4 only
3. 1, 3 and 4
4. 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (b)

Question 3: With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs: (UPSC Prelims 2022)

Historical person Known as

1. Aryadeva Jaina scholar 
2. Dignaga Buddhist scholar
3. Nathamuni Vaishnava scholar

How many pairs given above are correctly matched? 

1. None of the pairs
2. Only one pair 
3. Only two pairs 
4. All three pairs

Answer: (c)

Ancient Indian Literature FAQs

Q1. What are the oldest literary works in ancient Indian literature?

Ans. The oldest known literary works in ancient Indian literature are the Vedas, a collection of sacred hymns, rituals, and philosophical teachings composed between 1500-500 BCE. The Rig Veda is considered the oldest among the four principal Vedas.

Q2. What are the two great ancient Indian epics?

Ans. The two great ancient Indian epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana, composed by Valmiki, narrates the life story of Lord Rama, while the Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, revolves around the Kurukshetra war between the Pandavas and Kauravas.

Q3. Who is considered the greatest Sanskrit poet in ancient Indian literature?

Ans. Kalidasa is regarded as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist in ancient Indian literature. His works like Abhijñānaśākuntalam, Meghadūta, Kumārasambhava, and Raghuvaṃśa are celebrated as literary masterpieces.

Q4. What are the major philosophical texts in ancient Indian literature?

Ans. The major philosophical texts in ancient Indian literature include the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, and the works of philosophers like Adi Shankara, Nagarjuna, Gautama, and others representing different schools of Indian philosophy.

Q5. What are the significant works of ancient Indian drama and theatre?

Ans. The Natyashastra by Bharata Muni is a seminal treatise on dramatic theory and practice in ancient India. Major dramatic works include plays by Kalidasa (Abhijñānaśākuntalam), Bhavabhuti (Uttararāmacarita), Shudraka (Mricchakatika), and others.