Buddhist Literature

Canonical literature

Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline)

• Compiled at the First Buddhist Council (483 BC)
• Recited by Upali
• Subject matter: Vinaya Pitaka consists mainly of rules governing the daily life of monks and nuns.
  •  This contains instructions on the organization of the Sangha and how to keep the sangha working harmoniously.
• Composition
  • Suttavibhanga: Patimokkha (basic code of monastic discipline) and commentary
    • Mahavibhanga: rules for monks
    • Bhikkhunivibhanga: rules for nuns
  • Khandaka: 22 chapters on various topics
  • Parivara: analyses of rules from various points of view.

Sutta Pitaka

(Basket of Discourse)

• Compiled at: First Buddhist Council (483 BC)
• Sutta Pitaka was first orally rehearsed by Ananda (Buddha’s cousin).
• Subject matter:  Sutta Pitaka contains the core teachings of Buddhism.
• Sutta literally means discourse.
• The Sutta Pitaka: Contains the five Nikayas (collections), which developed on the essential teachings of the Buddha.
  • Digha-Nikaya: comprises the long collection (34 suttas)  
  • Majjhima-Nikaya: comprises the middle length 
  • Samyutta-Nikaya: comprises the connected discourses of Buddha 
  • Anguttara Nikaya: comprises numerical discourses 
  • Khuddaka-Nikaya: comprises the minor collection
    • It is a heterogeneous mix of sermons, doctrines and poetry attributed to Buddha and its disciples.
    •  Khudakka-nikaya includes Dhammapada and the Sutta-nipata

Abhidhamma Pitaka

(Basket of Higher Doctrine)

• The essence of Abhidamma was formulated by the Buddha after his Enlightenment.
• Buddha repeated it to Sariputta, who then transmitted it to his disciples.
• Subject matter: It is a higher and advanced formulation of Buddhist teachings.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
  • It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge and metaphysical problems.
• It gives a precise and detailed description of the "principles behind the mental and physical processes of the Buddha’s teaching" and states everything in psycho-philosophical language, expressing the ‘ultimate’ (paramattha) teachings.
• It consists of seven books: Dhammasangani, Vibhanga, Dhatukatha, Puggalapannatti, Kathavatthu, Yamaka, and Patthana.
• The earliest texts of the Pali canon have no mention of the texts of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. 

Non-Canonical literature

Dipavamsa

(Chronicle of the Island) 

• Time period: 3-4th century
• Author: Probably authored by several Buddhist monks of the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya
• Language: Pali
• Subject matter: Dipavamsa is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The Dipavamsa gives a fuller account of the arrival of Theri Sangamitta (daughter to Asoka).
• Buddhaghosa refers to Dipavamsa in his treatise “Samantapasadika”.
• The Dipavaṃsa lauds the Theravada as a "great banyan tree,"
• The Dipavamsa was likely the first completely new Pali text composed in Sri Lanka.
• The Dipavamsa is considered as source material for Mahavamsa. 

Mahavamsa

(Great Chronicle)

• Time period:  5th Century CE
• Author: Mahanama
• Language: Pali
• Subject matter: It consists of thirty-seven chapters describing the founding of the Sinhala kingdom by Vijaya, who migrated from India during the sixth century B.C.E. and 
  • the political as well as history of Buddhism upto the King Mahasena, who lived during the third century C. E.
  • It recounts the history of Buddhism in India, from Buddha’s death to the third Buddhist council. 
• It was written based on prior ancient compilations known as the Atthakatha.
• It deals with Emperor Ashoka's expedition to Sri Lanka and the establishment of the Mahavihara.
• It recounts the history of Buddhism in India, from Buddha’s death to the third Buddhist council. 
• The second part of the Mahavamsa, more commonly known as the Culavamsa was written in the 13th century AD. 
  • Author: Dhammakitti Thero, but many historians believe that it was authored by many monks.

Milinda Panha

(Questions of Milinda)

• Time period: 1st Century BC-2nd Century AD
• Author: Nagasena
• Language: Pali
• Subject matter: The Milindapanha records a series of discussions on points of Dhamma between the Indian Buddhist sage Nagasena and 2nd Century BC Indo-Greek king Menander 1 of Bactria.
  • After the discussion, Menander adopted the Buddhist faith and then handed over his kingdom to his son to retire from the world and attain enlightenment afterwards.  
• It is mentioned in the Grand Inscription d’Angkor engraved in 1701 on the walls of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.  

Nettipakarana

(The book of Guidance)

• Time period: 1st Century BCE-1st Century CE
• Author: Mahakaccana
• Language: Pali
• Subject matter: Nettipakarana is a mythological Buddhist scripture sometimes included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of Theravada Buddhism.
• The Nettipakarana is ascribed to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana by the text's colophon, introductory verses, and the commentary attributed to Dhammapala.
  • The text's colophon says he composed the book, that it was approved by the Buddha and that it was recited at the First Council (483 BC).
• It is divided into two divisions:
  • Sangahavara
  • Vibhagavara

Petakopadesa

• Time period: Around 2nd Century BCE
• Author: Mahakaccana
• Language: Pali
• Subject matter: Petakopadesa is a Buddhist scripture sometimes included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of Theravada Buddhism.
• The text is often connected to another para canonical text, the Nettipakarana.

Jatakas

• Time period: 4th Century BCE
• Language: Pali
• Subject matter: The Jataka tales are a large collection of Buddhist morality stories in which the Buddha recounts some of his past lives on his long road to enlightenment. 
  • Jataka stories have also been illustrated in Buddhist architecture throughout the Buddhist world. Some of the earliest illustrations can be found at Sanchi and Bharhut.
  • The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. 
  • They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.

Authors

Buddhist Sanskrit Texts

Asvaghosa  (80 AD-150 AD)

• Buddha Charita: It is an epic poem in the Sanskrit maha kavya style on the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.
• Saundarananda: It is a kavya poem with the theme of the conversion of Nanda, Buddha’s half-brother so that he might achieve salvation. 
  • The first half of the work describes Nanda’s life, and the second half describes Buddhist doctrines and ascetic practices. 
• Sutralankar 
• Sariputra Prakaran: It deals with Sariputta, the disciple of Buddha. Sariputta had a key leadership role in the ministry of Buddha, and he frequently appears in Mahayana sutras.  
• Vajra Suchi: It is a specimen of Buddhist polemical writing on the caste system advocated by the Vedic schools. 

Vasumitra 

• Mahavibhasa Shastra: It is an encyclopedic work on Abhidhamma, scholastic Buddhist philosophy. 
  • Its composition led to the founding of a new school of thought called Vaibhasika. 

Buddhaghosha (5th century)

• Visuddhimagga (path of Purification): It is a comprehensive summary of older Sinhala commentaries on Theravada teachings and practices. 
• Sumangalvasini
• Atthakathayen 

Nagarjuna (150 and 250 CE)

• Madhyamika Karika: It is a foundational text of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy.
  • The work is a grand commentary on Buddha’s “Discourse to Katyayana”.
• Prajnaparamita Karika: It means transcendental knowledge in Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.
  •  It also refers to the female deity Prajnaparamita Devi, a personification of wisdom also known as the “Great Mother”. 

-NA-

• Lalitavistara Sutra: It tells the story of Gautama Buddha from the time of his descent from Tushita until his first sermon. 
• Mahyanasamgraha: Summary of the Great Vehicle.
• Abhidharma-samuccaya: Summary of main Mahayana Abhiharma doctrines.

Other Sanskrit Texts

• Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita
• Prajnaparamita Hrdaya Sutra
• Buddhavatamsaka Sutra
• Dasabhumukasutra
• Sukhavativyuha
• Aksayamatinirdesa
• Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra

• Aryasamghata sutra
• Lankavatara Sutra
• Mahaparinirvana sutra
• Samadhiraja sutra
• Sakistamba Sutra
• Tathagataguhyaka
• Nilakantha Dharani
• The Mahavastu

• Samgitiparaya
• Jnanaprasthanam
• Prajnaptipada
• Mahakarmavibhanga
• Mahavyutpatti
• Mahavadanasutra
• Avadanasataka

Buddhist Scholars

Dignaga (480 AD-540 AD)

• Dignaga’s work laid the groundwork for the development of deductive logic in India and created the first system of Buddhist logic and epistemology.
• His Philosophy: 
  • Pratyaksha (awareness to acquire information) 
  • Anumana (type of cognition to be aware of general attributes)
  • Apohavada and language: (interpretation of conventional and symbolic signs to be conventional instances of inference)
• His works: 
  • Pramana-samuccaya (perception, language and inference)
  • Abhidharmakosa-marma-Pradip (Abhidharmakosha’s Summary).
  • Nyaya-mukha: (Introduction to logic)
  • A summary of the Mahayana Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita sutra 

Dharmakirti 

• Dharmakirti is associated with the Yogacara and Sautrantika schools.
• He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism.
• His philosophy:
  • Epistemology:  (instruments of knowledge, i.e., perception and inference)
  • Metaphysics: (real is only the momentarily existing particulars, and any universal is unreal and a fiction)
• His works include Sambandhaparikshavrtti, Pramanaviniscaya, Pramavarttika-karaka.  

Chandrakirti (600 CE-650 CE)

• Chandrakirti was a Buddhist scholar of Madhyamaka school.
• His philosophy:
  • Two truths
  • The nature of conventional truth
  • Prasanga and reasoning
  • Buddhahood
• His works include Mulamadhyamaka-vrtti-prasannapada, Madhyamakavatara, Yuktisasthika-vrtti.