Northern Kingdoms in Medieval India: Paramaras, Chandelas, Kalachuris & Sisodiyas

Paramar Dynasty

Period: 972 - 1305 AD

Capital: Dhar and Mandu

• Founder: It was founded by Upendra (Krishanaraja) at the beginning of the 9th century.
  •  Siyaka II made it an independent kingdom. Siyaka II succeeded the Rashtrakutas of Manykheta after defeating Rashtrakuta King Khotigga.
• The extent of rule: They ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India. They included territories from Chittor in the north to Konkan in the south and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
• Famous rulers: Siyaka II, Prithvi Vallabha, Sindhuraja, Bhoja, Naravarman,  Mahalakadeva. 
• Sources: 
  • The Harsola copper plates of Siyaka II mention a king called Akalavarsha.
  • Nava-sahasanka-charita mentions the story title ‘Paramar’.

Prithvi Vallabha / Munja (972 - 990 AD)

• Military conquests: He defeated the Kalachuris, the Huns, the Guhilas, the Nadulas, and the Tailapa.
  • He was defeated and killed by western Chalukya king Tailapa II.
• Titles:  Amoghavarsha, Prithvi Vallabha, and Sri Vallabha.

Sindhuraja (990 - 1010 AD)

• Military conquests: He defeated Satyashraya of the Western Chalukyas.
  • He defeated the Somavanshis of south Kosala, the Shilaharas of Konkana, and the ruler of Lata.
• Source: His biography “Nava-Sahasanka- Charita” is written by his court poet Padma Gupta. 
• Contribution: 
  • He made a great contribution to the field of literature.
  • Court poets and their work during his period:
    • Dhanajaya: Author of 'Dasharupaka'
    • Dhanika: Author of 'Yashorupa valika' 
    • Dhanapala: Author of 'Tilak-manjari'.

Bhoja (1010 - 1055 CE)

• Military conquests: He defeated the Chalukyas of Lata (present-day Gujarat), Shilahara of Konkan, Chahamanas of Shakambhari, 
• Titles: Parameshvara-Parama Bhattaraka.
• Source: 
  • He has been described as “Kaviraj” in Udaypur Prashasti. 
  • Modasa copper plates are the earliest historical record of Bhoja's reign.
• Contribution: 
  • Architecture: 
    • He founded the city of Bhojpur.
    • He constructed Bhojeshwar Temple and three dams in the area.
    • He founded the Bhoj Shala, a centre for Sanskrit studies in Dhar. 
  • Literature: 
    • He was a great patron of art and literature and adorned many court poets. 
    • He authored the Sarasvati-Kanthabharana, a Sanskrit Grammar treatise. His other works include Bhujabala-Bhima, Charucharya, Shalihotra, and Shringara-Prakasha.
    • Dasabala, the court poet of Bhoja composed Chintamani-Sarnika.

Naravarman (1094-1133 AD)

Source: Dewas grant inscription suggests that Naravarman succeeded Udayaditya on the throne.

Contribution: He had written the Nagpur Prashasti and restored the Mahakala temple in Ujjain.

Decline: 

• Weak rulers: Rulers after Bhoja were weak and could not manage the empire. 
• Invasions: Parmara Dynasty faced invasions from neighbours such as Western Chalukyas, the Yadavas, the Delhi Sultanate, and the Vaghelas.
  • The last Paramara king Mahalakadeva was defeated and killed by the army of Ayn al-Mulk Multani (Governor of Alauddin Khilji) in 1305 CE.

Chandela Dynasty

Period:  831 - 1315 AD

Capital: Khajuraho, Kalanjara and Mahoba

• Founder: The Chandela dynasty was founded by Nannuka in 831 AD.
• Rule of extent: They ruled the Bundelkhand or Jejak Bhukti region.
• Sources: Khajuraho inscription states that the Nannuka was a descendant of sage Chandratreya.
• Rulers: Yashovrman, Dhanga, Vidhyadhara, Kirtivarman, Paramardi Deva, Vira Varman II.
• Expansion: 
  • Yashovarman, the first independent king, conquered Kalinjar Hill.
  • Dhanga occupied the Gwalior fort.
  • Vidyadhara protected his kingdom against the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni and killed the Pratihara king of Kannauj.

Contribution to the Architecture

Features

The Chandela rulers developed a distinct style of temple making – Khajuraho School or Chandela School in Central India.

Features: 

• Decoration: The interior and exterior walls in these temples were lavishly decorated with carvings.
• Themes: The sculptures were generally erotic in their themes and drew inspiration from Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra.
  • The temples were built on a relatively high platform and belonged to the Hindu and Jain religions.
• Material: The temples were made of sandstone.
• Components: The temples had three chambers – Garbhagriha, Mandapa and Ardhamandapa. Some temples had a vestibular entrance to the garbhagriha known as antarala.
• Direction: The temples were generally north or east facing. 
• Method used: Panchayatan style of temple making was followed. The subsidiary shrines had Rekha-prasad shikhara creating an impression of a mountain range. 

Lakshmana Temple (Khajuraho)

• Patron: It was built by Chandela ruler Yashovarman in the 10th century AD.
• Location: It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vaikuntha Vishnu (an aspect of Vishnu) located in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh. 
• Features: 
  • The temple is a Sandhara temple of the Panchayatana variety.
  • The temple has only one entrance on the east side.

Vishvanatha Temple (Khajuraho)

• Patron: It was built by Chandela ruler Dhanga in the 10th -11th century AD.
• Location: It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishvanatha (a form of Shiva) located in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh. 
  • It is a part of the western group of the UNESCO World Heritage-listed Khajuraho Monuments.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Khajuarho)

• Patron: It was built by Chandela ruler Vidyadhara in the 11th century AD.
• Location: It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh. 
• Features: 
  • It is the largest and tallest of the surviving temples at the temple site of Khajuraho.
  • Shiva is represented by the linga in the main shrine known as the womb chamber.

Parshvanatha temple (Khajuraho)

• Patron: It was built by Chandela ruler Dhanga in the 10th century AD.
• Location: It is a Jain temple dedicated to Parshvanatha located in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh.
• Features: 
  • It is the largest among the Jain temples of Khajuraho.
  • Its exterior walls feature Vaishnavaite themes.
  • It doesn't feature explicit erotic sculptures compared to Kandariya and Laxman temples. 
  • It has an inscription with a magic square called the "Jaina square".

Decline: The decline of the Chandela Dynasty began in the 13th century due to a combination of internal conflicts and external invasions.

• Ghaznavid invasions had weakened the Chandela kingdom.
• The Delhi Sultanate, under the leadership of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, invaded the Chandela kingdom.
• The Chandela power continued to decline due to the rise of other local dynasties, such as the Bundelas, the Baghelas and the Khangars.

Kalachuris of Tripuri

Period: 850 - 1212 AD

Capital: Tripuri (Tewar)

• Founder: It was founded by Kokalla I (850-885 AD).
• Rule of extent: They ruled over the parts of central India and included Gorakhpur, Ratnapur, and Rajpur (eastern Gujarat).
• Sources:
  • The Karitalai inscription of the Lakshmanaraja I describes them as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. 
  • The Gyaraspur inscription traces the dynasty's ancestry to Kartavirya Arjuna.
• Expansion: They started consolidating and expanding after the decline of the Rashtrakuta and Pratihara empires declined. The important kings and their military achievements are briefly discussed below: 
  • Kokalla won the Konkan area.
  • Shankaragana III adopted an aggressive expansion policy and defeated Gurjara-Pratihara King Vijayapala.
  • Gangeya-Deva (1015 - 1041 AD) defeated the Chandelas of Jejak-Bhukti. 
  • Laxmikarna (1041 - 1073 AD):
    • He led military campaigns against Anga and Vanga kingdoms. 
    • He defeated Solanki ruler Bhima I and Parmara king Bhoja.
    • He conquered a large part of Chandela's territory. 
• Religion:  They adhered to Shaivism but also supported Jainism. 
• Decline: Rulers after Laxmikarna were weak and could not manage the empire, and faced frequent invasions, leading to a gradual loss of territory and influence.

Contribution to Architecture:

The Karna Temple (Madhya Pradesh)

• Built by King Lakshmikarna of the Kalachuri Dynasty of Tripuri. 
• Location: It is in Amarkantak, Anuppur district of Madhya Pradesh. 
• Features: It consists of three temples built over a raised platform. 

Chausath Yogini Temple, Bhedaghat (Madhya Pradesh)

• Patron: It was built early in the 11th Century AD by King Yuvaraja II of the Kalachuris of Tripuri.
• Location: It is located on the bank of the river Narmada in Bhedaghat, Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh.
• Feature: It has images of 81 Yoginis. The temple is the abode of Goddess Durga.

Sisodiyas of Mewar

Period: 1326 AD - 1947

Capital: Chittor and Udaipur

• Rana Hammir I: He was the founder of the Sisodiya dynasty of Mewar.
  • He was a contemporary of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq and defeated him.
  • Source: Rasik Priya and Kirti Stambh inscriptions refer to him as "Visham Ghati Panchanan".
• Rana Lakha (1382- 1421): He ordered the construction of Pichola Lake in Udaipur in Rajasthan.
• Maharana Kumbha (1433-1468): 
  • He defeated the Sultan of Mandu and Mahmud Khilji in the Battle of Mandavgad.
  • He built Kumbhalgarh Fort in Mewar region in Rajasthan.
  • He wrote Samgita-raja, the Rasika-priya, the Sudaprabandha, the Kamaraja-ratisara, Sangita-ratnakara and Sangita-krama-dipaka. 
• Rana Sanga (1508-1528):
  • He defeated the Sultan of Malwa in the Battle of Gagron (1519).
  • He defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the Battle of Khatoli (1517) & Dholpur (1519)
  • He was defeated by Babur in the Battle of Khanwa (1527).
• Udai Singh II (1540–1572): He founded the city of Udaipur. 
• Maharana Pratap (1540- 1597): He fought against Akbar in the Battle of Haldighati in 1576 to resist the expansionist policy of the Mughal empire.
• Amar Singh I (1597-1620): 
  • He defeated the Mughal commander in charge, Sultan Khan, in the Battle of Dewair (1606).
  • Treaty of Chittor (1615): He concluded a treaty with Mughal Emperor Jahangir putting an end to the Mughal-mewar conflict. 
• Jai Singh (1680–1698): 
  • He fought a war against Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
  • He ordered the construction of the Dhebar Lake, also known as Jaisamand, in 1685.