Mains Articles for 21-March-2025

by Vajiram & Ravi

India’s Habitual Offender Laws: A Legacy of Discrimination Blog Image

What’s in Today’s Article?

  • Habitual Offender Laws Latest News
  • Habitual Offender Laws
  • Historical Roots: From Criminal Tribes to Habitual Offenders
  • Supreme Court’s Intervention and Recent Developments
  • Crimes Under the Habitual Offender Tag
  • Impact on Denotified and Nomadic Tribes
  • Current Status Across States
  • Importance of Repeal
  • Conclusion
  • Habitual Offender Laws in India FAQs

Habitual Offender Laws Latest News

  • Recently, the Government of India has revealed in Parliament that laws which declare a section of criminals as “habitual offenders” continue to operate in as many as 14 States and Union Territories.

Habitual Offender Laws

  • Habitual offender laws in India allow state authorities to identify and monitor individuals convicted of certain crimes repeatedly. 
  • These laws were intended to control repeat offenders, but have come under heavy criticism for institutionalising discrimination, especially against denotified, nomadic, and semi-nomadic tribes (DNT, NT, SNT)—communities historically labelled as "criminal tribes" during British rule.
  • As of March 2025, the Government of India confirmed in Parliament that such laws continue to operate in 14 States and Union Territories, despite the Supreme Court's recent observations questioning their constitutional validity and discriminatory application.

Historical Roots: From Criminal Tribes to Habitual Offenders

  • The origins of these laws date back to colonial legislation:
    • Regulation XXII (1793) granted magistrates power to imprison or force labour on certain communities based merely on suspicion.
    • This evolved into the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) of 1871, which allowed the British to declare entire communities as “criminal by birth”.
    • The CTA was extended in 1924 to cover all of colonial India.
  • Post-independence, following the Criminal Tribes Enquiry Committee Report (1949-50), the CTA was repealed in 1952, and communities previously criminalised were officially denotified
  • However, states soon introduced Habitual Offender Acts, which, while framed around individual behaviour, continued to disproportionately target DNTs.

Supreme Court’s Intervention and Recent Developments

  • In October 2024, the Supreme Court expressed concern over the habitual offender classification while addressing caste-based discrimination in jails. 
  • The bench, led by then-Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud, highlighted that:
    • “A whole community ought not to have either been declared a criminal tribe in the past or a habitual offender in the present.”
    • The court “urged” states to review the relevance and application of these laws, especially when they appear to be tools for profiling entire communities.

Crimes Under the Habitual Offender Tag

  • State laws define habitual offenders based on prior convictions for specific offences, including:
    • “Being a thug”
    • “Belonging to a gang of dacoits”
    • “Living on the earnings of prostitution”
    • Various forms of “lurking”
  • These laws typically involve maintaining registers of such offenders, which continue to echo the registration practices under the CTA. 
  • In states like Rajasthan, prison manuals even explicitly link habitual offender status to denotified communities.

Impact on Denotified and Nomadic Tribes

  • Despite formal denotification, DNTs remain vulnerable to police surveillance, social ostracization, and systematic exclusion
  • In 1998, the custodial death of Budhan Sabar, a member of a denotified tribe, sparked national outrage and gave rise to the Denotified and Nomadic Tribes Rights Action Group (DNT-RAG).
  • Activists like Mahasweta Devi and G.N. Devy worked to document the injustice, prompting action from the NHRC, and later, the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, which called for repeal of these laws in 2007.
  • Several reports, including the B.S. Renke Commission (2008) and the Xaxa Committee (2014), have emphasized how the stigma of criminality persists, further marginalising DNTs from education, employment, and social integration.

Current Status Across States

  • Reactions from states to the Supreme Court’s observation have been mixed:
    • Punjab and Odisha report no active use of the law in recent years.
    • Andhra Pradesh has no inmates under the law currently.
    • Gujarat and Goa support retaining the law, claiming it is not used to target DNTs.
    • Uttar Pradesh subsumed these provisions under its Goondas Act.
    • Delhi leads in application: as per NCRB 2022, 21.5% of its convicts were classified as habitual offenders, the highest in the country.

Importance of Repeal

  • Critics argue that the habitual offender laws:
    • Perpetuate colonial-era stigma and discrimination.
    • Enable targeted policing of marginalised communities.
    • Violate fundamental rights, including equality (Article 14) and freedom of movement (Article 19).
    • Contradict India's commitments to racial and caste-based non-discrimination under international human rights law.
  • A uniform repeal across all states would be a long-overdue step toward justice and inclusion for DNT, NT, and SNT communities.

Conclusion

  • India’s habitual offender laws may appear neutral on paper, but their colonial legacy and discriminatory enforcement have made them tools of oppression against vulnerable communities. 
  • With growing judicial scrutiny and consistent recommendations from rights commissions, the time has come for a nationwide review and repeal of these outdated laws.
  • Empowering denotified and nomadic tribes requires not just policy reforms, but a conscious dismantling of inherited prejudices, starting with the removal of systemic legal discrimination.

Habitual Offender Laws in India FAQs

Q1. What are habitual offender laws?

Ans. These are state-level laws that target individuals with multiple criminal convictions, often disproportionately affecting denotified tribes.

Q2. Why are these laws considered discriminatory?

Ans. They trace back to colonial-era classifications of communities as "criminal tribes", perpetuating caste and community-based profiling.

Q3. What did the Supreme Court say about habitual offender laws?

Ans. The Court questioned their constitutional validity and urged states to review and repeal such laws.

Q4. Are these laws still in use?

Ans. Yes, as of 2025, habitual offender laws remain active in 14 states and union territories.

Q5. Which states have the highest number of habitual offenders?

Ans. According to 2022 NCRB data, Delhi had the highest proportion—21.5% of its convict population were classified as habitual offenders.

Source: TH


India’s Looming Power Crisis: Renewable Energy Challenges and Solutions Blog Image

What’s in Today’s Article?

  • India Power Shortage Latest News
  • Rapid Growth of Renewables and Associated Challenges
  • Rising Power Demand and Grid Stability Concerns
  • Projected Power Shortages in Summer 2025
  • Urgent Need for Energy Storage Systems
  • Reviving Thermal Power to Address Shortages
  • India Power Shortage FAQs

India Power Shortage Latest News

  • India’s rapid renewable energy expansion without adequate storage systems has led to growing electricity grid instability, with power shortages expected to rise in May and June. 
  • This issue is worsened by a decade-old policy to scale down thermal power expansion, reducing critical baseload support during peak summer evenings. 
  • Additionally, financial mismanagement in power distribution, driven by state governments’ reluctance to address revenue leaks and reliance on central lending utilities to cover discom losses, further exacerbates the crisis.

Rapid Growth of Renewables and Associated Challenges

  • India has been rapidly expanding renewable energy, adding over 21 GW (excluding large hydro) in the current fiscal year, bringing total capacity to 165 GW (212 GW with large hydro). 
  • In contrast, coal-based thermal capacity stands at 220 GW.

Intermittency Challenges of Renewables

  • Unlike thermal power, which can be ramped up as needed, solar and wind energy depend on weather conditions. 
  • Solar generation peaks in the afternoon but drops by evening, creating a supply gap when electricity demand surges due to air conditioner usage in North India.

Thermal Capacity Constraints in Non-Solar Hours

  • To meet evening demand, thermal plants are ramped up, but India’s coal-based capacity has grown only 7% since 2019-20, limiting its ability to fill the gap. 
  • While past thermal additions (92 GW from 2012-2017) allowed grid operators to increase plant load factors (PLFs), most plants are now running at high PLFs, making further scaling difficult.
    • PLF measures a power plant's capacity utilization, expressed as the percentage of actual energy generated to the maximum possible energy it could have generated during a given period.

Rising Power Demand and Grid Stability Concerns

  • India’s peak power demand has surged from 169 GW in 2018-19 to 250 GW in 2024-25 and is expected to reach 270 GW this summer. 
  • With growing reliance on renewables (from 72 GW in 2019-20 to over 150 GW in February 2025), grid stability has become a major concern.

Projected Power Shortages in Summer 2025

  • India’s top grid operator anticipates power shortages from April to October, with May and June identified as high-risk months. 
  • Unmet demand could reach 15-20 GW, especially during non-solar hours.

Risk of Load Shedding and Supply Deficits

  • The Loss of Load Probability (LOLP) for May is estimated at 19% in the best-case scenario and 31% in the median scenario, indicating a one-in-three chance of supply shortages. For June, the LOLP ranges from 4.7% to 20.1%.
    • LOLP in power systems engineering is the probability that the system fails to meet the demand for electrical power within a specified period, essentially indicating the risk of a power outage. 

Urgent Need for Energy Storage Systems

  • The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) recognizes the grid stability challenges posed by intermittent renewables.
  • Hence, it issued an advisory recommending co-located Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) and Pumped Storage Plants (PSP) with solar projects. 
  • These systems can store surplus solar power during the day and release it when demand peaks in non-solar hours.

Current Storage Capacity vs. Growing Renewable Base

  • While India’s total renewable energy capacity has surpassed 200 GW, its installed energy storage capacity remains low at just 4.75 GW (PSP) and 0.11 GW (BESS) as of late 2024.

Importance of Timely Deployment

  • The National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) warns that delays in BESS and PSP commissioning could worsen energy shortages, especially during peak demand periods. 
  • Ensuring timely deployment will improve grid flexibility, support renewable integration, and mitigate reliability risks.

Reviving Thermal Power to Address Shortages

  • To increase active generation capacity, the National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) has suggested invoking Section 11 of the Electricity Act, 2003 to mandate higher operational levels for imported coal-based plants. 
  • These plants are typically used less due to their higher costs, but their optimal utilization during peak demand could help mitigate supply shortages.

Hidden Costs of Renewable Energy

  • To manage power intermittency, aging thermal units are being kept on standby, but this leads to high costs. 
  • Experts argue that the assumption of renewables achieving grid parity is misleading, as factoring in standby thermal power nearly doubles the cost of renewable electricity.

Policy Missteps & Their Consequences

  • Decisions taken over the past decade are now affecting grid stability. 
  • The National Electricity Plan (2017-22) had ruled out fresh thermal capacity additions beyond 2022, except for 50 GW of under-construction projects. 
  • Imported coal-based projects were also discouraged due to global price volatility.

Corrective Measures Underway

  • Recognizing past planning failures, corrective actions have been initiated, including:
    • A renewed push for nuclear power in fleet mode
    • Expansion of thermal capacity
    • Importing coal to restart idle plants
    • Mandating energy storage for all new solar projects under the latest Central Electricity Authority (CEA) directive
  • These measures aim to stabilize the grid and ensure a reliable power supply during high-demand periods.

India Power Shortage FAQs

Q1. Why is India facing a power shortage in 2025?

Ans. Rapid renewable expansion without storage and limited thermal capacity has led to grid instability.

Q2. How does renewable energy impact India’s power grid?

Ans. Solar and wind power fluctuate, creating supply gaps during peak demand, especially in non-solar hours.

Q3. What measures can prevent India’s power crisis?

Ans. Expanding energy storage (BESS, PSP) and reviving thermal power plants can stabilize the grid.

Q4. Why is India’s thermal power capacity insufficient?

Ans. A policy shift away from thermal expansion since 2017 has led to supply constraints.

Q5. What role does the government play in solving the crisis?

Ans. The government is mandating energy storage, reviving coal-based plants, and investing in nuclear power.

Source: IE | News18


 World Happiness Report 2025 - India’s Happiness Ranking Improves but Still Trails Pakistan Blog Image

What’s in Today’s Article?

  • World Happiness Report 2025 Latest News
  • Methodology of the World Happiness Report
  • World Happiness Report 2025 FAQs

World Happiness Report 2025 Latest News

  • The World Happiness Report 2025, published by the Wellbeing Research Centre at the University of Oxford, ranks Finland as the happiest country for the eighth consecutive year
  • It highlights an improvement in India’s happiness score and ranking over the past three years. However, despite its economic and governance advantages, India continues to lag behind Pakistan in overall happiness rankings.
  • The rankings are based on Gallup surveys and the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network.

Methodology of the World Happiness Report

  • Life evaluations: Based on responses from the Gallup World Poll, where people rate their life on a 0-10 scale using the Cantril Ladder method.
  • Three-year average: The 2025 rankings are based on data collected from 2022 to 2024.
  • Key indicators considered: While the rankings are not based on an index, six primary factors influence happiness scores:
    • GDP per capita
    • Healthy life expectancy
    • Social support
    • Perceived freedom to make life choices
    • Generosity
    • Perception of corruption

Key Highlights of the World Happiness Report 2025

  • Top-ranked countries:
    • Nordic dominance: Finland, Denmark, Iceland, and Sweden occupy the top four positions.
    • New entrants in top 10: Costa Rica (6th) and Mexico (10th) made it to the top ten for the first time.
    • Israel (8th): Despite the ongoing war with Hamas, Israel secured a high position in the rankings.
  • Determinants of happiness:
    • Beyond economic growth, trust, social connections, and support networks play a crucial role in happiness.
    • Household size: In Mexico and Europe, families with four to five members report the highest happiness levels.
    • Belief in kindness: Trust in strangers returning a lost wallet strongly correlates with national happiness.
  • Declining happiness in the west:
    • United States (24th): Dropped from 11th (2012) due to increased isolation, with a 53% rise in people dining alone over two decades.
    • United Kingdom (23rd): Lowest happiness level since 2017.
  • Least happy countries:
    • Afghanistan: Continues to be the unhappiest, with Afghan women facing extreme hardship.
    • Sierra Leone and Lebanon ranked second and third lowest.
  • Global social support decline: 19% of young adults reported having no one to rely on.

India’s Ranking and Performance

image5.webp
  • Improved ranking: India moved up from 126th (out of 143 countries last year) to 118th (out of 147 countries).
  • Score increase: India’s happiness score rose from 4.054 to 4.389 (on a scale of 10).
  • Sub-indicators:
    • 57th for donations.
    • 10th for volunteering.
    • 74th for helping a stranger.
    • Wallet return probability: 115th (by neighbor), 86th (by stranger), 93rd (by police).
  • Comparison with neighbors: India ranked below Nepal, Pakistan (109th), Ukraine, and Palestine in overall happiness.

Discrepancies in India’s Ranking

  • Lower ranking than Pakistan: Despite India’s superior economic and governance indicators, it ranks lower than Pakistan in happiness.
  • Economic strength: India’s per capita income ($2,480.8 in 2023) is significantly higher than Pakistan’s ($1,365.3).
  • Health indicators: India’s healthy life expectancy (58.1 years in 2021) is slightly better than Pakistan’s (56.9 years).
  • Corruption perception: India ranked 96th in the Corruption Perceptions Index 2024, much better than Pakistan (135th).

Conclusion

  • India’s improvement in happiness ranking signals progress, but the methodology of the report raises concerns as it does not fully account for economic strength, health, and governance. 
  • The rankings suggest that social factors, trust, and well-being perceptions play a larger role in determining happiness than material prosperity alone.
  • According to Gallup CEO (Jon Clifton), happiness isn't just about wealth or growth - it's about trust, connection, and knowing people have your back. Investing in one another is essential if we want stronger economies and communities.

World Happiness Report 2025 FAQs

Q1. What is the basis of the World Happiness Report rankings, and which organization publishes it?

Ans. The report, published by the Wellbeing Research Centre at the University of Oxford, ranks countries based on life evaluations collected through the Gallup World Poll using the Cantril Ladder method.

Q2. How has India’s ranking changed in the World Happiness Report 2025 compared to previous years?

Ans. India’s ranking improved from 126th (out of 143 countries) to 118th (out of 147 countries), with its happiness score increasing from 4.054 to 4.389 between 2021-23 and 2022-24.

Q3. Despite economic challenges, why does Pakistan rank higher than India in happiness?

Ans. This is due to factors like social support, perceived freedom, and community trust, despite having lower GDP per capita, lower healthy life expectancy, and higher corruption perception.

Q4. What are the six key factors considered in explaining differences in happiness scores among countries?

Ans. The six key factors are GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, social support, perceived freedom to make life choices, generosity, and perception of corruption.

Q5. What are some criticisms regarding the methodology of the World Happiness Report?

Ans. The rankings are questioned as they do not directly use economic and governance indicators like GDP per capita, corruption perception, or life expectancy, making social perceptions a dominant factor.

Source: ToI | IE | BS


India’s Role in the Arctic: A Strategic and Economic Perspective Blog Image

What’s in Today’s Article?

  • India Arctic Strategy Latest News
  • India’s Strategic and Economic Interests in the Arctic
  • India-Russia Relations in the Arctic
  • India’s Role as a Stabilising Factor in the Arctic
  • India Arctic Strategy FAQs

India Arctic Strategy Latest News

  • Speaking at an India-Russia Arctic conference, Russian Ambassador to India emphasized India’s growing role in the Arctic as a stabilizing force amid rising militarization by NATO countries.
  • The conference was organized by Vivekananda International Foundation and The Northern Forum of Russia.

India’s Strategic and Economic Interests in the Arctic

  • India’s 2022 Arctic Policy takes a whole-of-government approach, focusing on climate, economy, and governance. 
  • However, it overlooks rising militarization and great power rivalries. 
  • To safeguard long-term strategic interests, India must incorporate a seventh pillar addressing geopolitical dynamics.

Economic Opportunities in the Arctic

  • The melting Arctic ice is reshaping global shipping routes. 
  • While the Northern Sea Route (NSR) offers limited advantages for India, linking the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) with Russia’s Unified Deep-Water System (UDWS) could reduce costs and stimulate hinterland development. 
  • Additionally, the Chennai-Vladivostok Eastern Maritime Corridor aims to integrate with the NSR, potentially cutting travel time to Europe by two weeks.

Countering China’s Expanding Presence

  • China is aggressively investing in the Russian Arctic, particularly in energy and infrastructure, under its Polar Silk Road initiative. 
  • With a US$10 billion investment, China’s growing presence threatens India’s strategic and economic interests. 
  • Collaborating with Russia on the NSR can counterbalance China’s dominance, secure India’s energy supply, and prevent Russia from becoming overly reliant on China.

Navigating Geopolitical Dynamics

  • The Arctic is becoming a strategic battleground, with China asserting itself as a “near-Arctic state.” 
  • While India’s policy emphasizes sustainability, it must also strengthen strategic autonomy through diversified partnerships. 
  • By engaging in Arctic affairs, India can protect its energy security and assert influence in a multipolar world order.

India-Russia Relations in the Arctic

  • India’s growing interest in the Arctic’s hydrocarbon and mineral reserves is closely tied to its partnership with Russia. 
  • With 50-55% of the Arctic’s coastline under Russian jurisdiction, India has invested $15 billion in Russian oil and gas projects, securing its economic and strategic foothold in the region.

Strengthening Bilateral Trade and Arctic Cooperation

  • At the 22nd Indo-Russia Summit, both nations committed to intensifying trade and investment, especially in the Russian Far East and Arctic zones. 
  • A joint working body within IRIGC-TEC has been established to enhance collaboration on the Northern Sea Route (NSR). 
  • They also set a goal to increase bilateral trade to $100 billion by 2030.

Geopolitical and Energy Security Implications

  • As global power shifts towards Asia, India-Russia cooperation in the Arctic is becoming increasingly vital. 
  • Russia controls 80% of Arctic oil and gas reserves, while India seeks reliable energy sources for its growing economy. 

India’s Role as a Stabilising Factor in the Arctic

  • Russian Ambassador Denis Alipov emphasized India’s constructive approach in the Arctic, contrasting it with NATO’s militarization and unilateral policies, which have disrupted Arctic Council activities since 2022. 
  • He reaffirmed Russia’s support for India’s growing presence in the region and its commitment to joint scientific, environmental, and commercial initiatives.

India-Russia Scientific Collaboration in the Arctic

  • Alipov highlighted areas of bilateral research cooperation, including climate change, atmospheric studies, geosciences, glaciology, and polar biology. 
  • Indian scientists are also studying the Arctic’s influence on South Asian monsoons. 
  • Institutions like the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (Russia) and the Indian National Centre for Polar and Oceanic Research are actively collaborating, supported by a 2024 memorandum on Arctic research.

Energy and Mineral Resource Cooperation

  • Both countries are exploring joint ventures in Arctic energy and mineral resource extraction. 

Utilisation of the Northern Sea Route (NSR)

  • India and Russia are strengthening maritime cooperation through the Northern Sea Route (NSR), which provides a shorter trade corridor between Eurasia and the Asia-Pacific. 
  • The India-Russia working group on NSR met in October to discuss cargo transit, polar navigation training for Indian sailors, and Arctic shipbuilding projects. 
    • A memorandum of understanding on NSR cooperation is under negotiation.

Expanding India’s Arctic Research Infrastructure

  • Russia has offered vacant research stations in the Arctic for India’s use. 

India’s Strategic Investment in Russia’s Far East

  • As India expands its investments in Russia’s Far East, cooperation on the NSR was highlighted in Prime Minister Modi’s 2023 visit to Moscow. 
  • Both nations aim to establish a stable and efficient transport corridor to strengthen their economic and geopolitical ties in the Greater Eurasian region.

India Arctic Strategy FAQs

Q1. Why is India expanding its presence in the Arctic?

Ans. India seeks energy security, trade opportunities, and a strategic role in Arctic governance.

Q2. How does India benefit from Arctic shipping routes?

Ans. Linking the NSR with INSTC and the Chennai-Vladivostok corridor can reduce shipping costs and transit times.

Q3. What role does Russia play in India’s Arctic strategy?

Ans. Russia, controlling 50-55% of the Arctic, partners with India in energy, trade, and scientific research.

Q4. How does India counterbalance China in the Arctic?

Ans. India’s partnership with Russia limits China’s dominance and secures India’s energy interests.

Q5. What are India’s future plans in the Arctic?

Ans. India aims to expand trade, energy projects, and scientific research while strengthening strategic autonomy.

Source: TH | ORF | ET