What’s in Today’s Article?

• Why in News?
• About Amazon Rainforests
• Drought in Amazon Rainforests
• Impact of Drought
• Causes Behind the Drought
• Concerning Studies on the Future of the Amazon Rainforests

Why in News?

• The Amazon rainforest is reeling from an intense drought. Numerous rivers vital for travel have dried up.
• As a result, there is no water, food, or medicine in villages of indigenous communities living in the area.

About Amazon Rainforests

• The Amazon rainforest, also called Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America.
  • This basin encompasses 70 lakh km² of which 55 lakh km² are covered by the rainforest.
• This region includes territory belonging to nine countries and more than 3300 formally acknowledged indigenous territories.
• The majority of the forest, 60%, is in Brazil, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%.

Drought in Amazon Rainforests:

• Eight Brazilian states recorded the lowest rainfall between July 2023 to September 2023 in over 40 years.
• Rainfall is forecast to be below average until the end of the year.
• The latest calamity is becoming another cause for accelerating the destruction of the Amazon, called the planet's lungs (storing more than 150 billion metric tonnes of carbon).

Impact of the Drought

• Drying of Water Bodies:
  • The Rio Negro, one of the world’s largest rivers by discharge levels, has fallen to a record low level of 13.59 metres.
  • The drought has also affected the Madeira River, another vital Amazon tributary, causing Brazil's fourth largest hydroelectric dam, Santo Antonio, to halt its operations due to historically low water levels.
• Death of Marine Species:
  • High numbers of fish and river dolphins, known as Boto, have been washing up dead due to low water levels.
  • Also, their rotting carcasses have contaminated the water supply in some areas, forcing residents to use it for cooking, bathing, and drinking.
• State of Emergency:
  • Brazilian authorities fear that about 500,000 people may be affected due to the drought by the end of October.
  • Manaus, the largest city and capital of Amazonas, the state hit hardest by the drought, declared states of emergency in 55 out of 62 municipalities due to the severe water shortage.
• Increase in Wildfires:
  • The extreme dry conditions have made the rainforest more vulnerable to wildfires too.
  • So far this month, the Amazonas state has witnessed 2,700 blazes — the highest ever noted for the month of October since the records began 25 years ago.
  • Smoke from wildfires has plummeted air quality in Manaus, a city of two million in the middle of the Amazon, to hazardous levels.

Causes Behind the Drought

• Droughts aren’t unheard of in the Amazon. Most recently, the rainforest witnessed a dry spell in 2021, which was the worst in at least 90 years.
• The latest drought, however, is probably even more severe as two simultaneous natural events have hindered cloud formation, further reducing the already low rainfall levels in the region.
• Role of El Nino:
  • El Nino refers to an abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
  • The weather pattern is known to increase the likelihood of breaking temperature records and triggers more extreme heat in many parts of the world and in the ocean.
• High Water Temperatures in Atlantic Ocean:
  • The other weather event is the unusually high water temperatures in the northern tropical Atlantic Ocean.
  • Due to warmer ocean waters, heated air rises into the atmosphere, which then reaches the Amazon rainforest.
  • The warm air inhibits the formation of clouds, causing rainfall to drop sharply.

Concerning Studies on the Future of the Amazon Rainforests

• Over the years, several studies have indicated that with rising global temperatures, the Amazon will experience longer and more frequent droughts.
• A 2022 study, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), said “if humans continue burning fossil fuels at the current rate, the rainforest would experience major drought 9 out of every 10 years by the year 2060”.
• Another study, published in the journal Nature in 2022, revealed that the Amazon has become slower at recovering from longer periods of drought over the past 20 years and is nearing its tipping point.
  • Beyond the tipping point, it would transform from a lush green forest into a drier open savanna, releasing a large amount of stored carbon, which would, in turn, exacerbate global warming.
• In the past five decades, between 17 and 20 per cent of the Amazon has been destroyed.
• Therefore, there is an urgent need to curb deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions to protect the Amazon, and, where possible, reforest the degraded swathes according to experts.

Q1) What is meant by Carbon Sink?

Carbon sink is a forest, ocean, or other natural environment viewed in terms of its ability to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Q2) What is Carbon Footprint?

A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (including carbon dioxide and methane) that are generated by our actions. The average carbon footprint for a person in the United States is 16 tons, one of the highest rates in the world.

Source: Severe drought grips the Amazon rainforest: The impact, cause and grim future 

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Why in News?
• About SLLs (Meaning, Significance, Need for Reforms, etc.)

 About Special and Local Laws (SLLs)

• Cognizable crimes are categorized either under the 'Indian Penal Code (IPC)' or under the 'Special and Local Laws (SLL)'.
• The SLL identify criminal activities that the state government frames for specific issues.
• Special Laws:
  • A “special law” is a law applicable to a particular subject. Special laws are those that cover specific issues.
  • Examples of these laws include the Excise, Opium, Cattle Trespass, Gambling, and Railway Acts.
• Local Laws:
  • A “local law” is a law applicable only to a particular part of India.
  • Laws applicable to a particular locality only are termed local laws, e.g., Port Trust Act.

Significance of SLLs

• SLLs have immense quantitative and qualitative relevance in the Indian criminal justice system.
• To illustrate, nearly 39.9% of all cognisable offences registered in 2021 were under SLLs.
• As per the Crime in India Statistics of 2021, of the total of nearly 61 lakh cognisable offences registered, 24.3 lakh offences were registered under SLLs alone.
• On the qualitative side, SLLs have given rise to several fundamental and pertinent debates, discourses and discussions regarding the limits on the state’s power of criminalisation especially in the context of violation of individual rights and liberties.

Need for Reforming SLLs

• Diverse Substantive Issues:
  • SLLs such as the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA) and the Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act, 1999 (MCOCA) suffer from glaringly deficient, ambiguous and vague definitions of offences and terms, raising concerns about the application.
  • The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 is increasingly being criticised for its applicability to consensual sexual activities between minors.
  • Concerns have also been raised regarding criminalisation of such conduct through SLLs which would otherwise fall squarely within the domain of civil wrongs or at best, regulatory wrongs.
  • For example, the Supreme Court in the case of P. Mohanraj versus M/s Shah Brothers Ispat Ltd. (2021) referred to Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 as a ‘civil sheep’ in a ‘criminal wolf’s’ clothing.
• Procedural Challenges:
  • Universally accepted due process values are increasingly being diluted through SLLs.
  • Increased powers of search and seizure under Section 43A of the UAPA and the admissibility of confessions recorded by police officers under Section 18 of the MCOCA are prime examples of the same.
  • The stringent provisions provided for under Section 43(D)(5) of the UAPA, Section 37 of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 and Section 45 of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) 2002 make the grant of bail a near impossibility.

Conclusion

• All SLLs which criminalise/seek to criminalise a conduct should find a place as separate chapters within the larger structure of the penal code.
• All SLLs which create a separate procedure for reporting of offences, arrest, investigation, prosecution, trial, evidence and bail must be included either as separate procedures within the CrPC or as exceptions to the general provisions provided therein.
• Non-inclusion of the substantive and procedural aspects of the SLLs in the ongoing reform project is a serious limitation.
• It is imperative therefore that a second generation of reforms be brought in, in order to address the lacunae.

Q1) When was Indian Penal Code established in India?

It was enacted on 6 October 1860. It contains 511 section which derives all the criminal offense in details. It is an official criminal code of the Republic of India.

Q2) What is the Special Marriage Act, 1954?

The Special Marriage Act, 1954 is an Act of the Parliament of India with provision for civil marriage for people of India and all Indian nationals in foreign countries, irrelevant of the religion or faith followed by either party.

Source: Why Special and Local Laws also need to be reformed

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in news?
• Questions in Lok Sabha
• What is the procedure for raising the questions?
• What are the conditions for the admissibility of questions?
• What are the different types of questions?
• Importance of raising questions

Why in news?

• Trinamool Congress MP Mahua Moitra said she welcomes answering questions from the CBI and the Lok Sabha Ethics Committee pertaining to cash for query allegations against her.
• Earlier, Lok Sabha Speaker had referred the bribe-for-query complaint against MP Mahua Moitra to the Ethics Committee of the Lower House.
• The BJP MP had accused Mahua Moitra of accepting money from a businessman to ask questions in Parliament.

What is the procedure for raising the questions in Lok Sabha?

• Existing rules
  • The procedure for raising questions is governed by:
    • Rules 32 to 54 of the “Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha” and
    • Directions 10 to 18 of the “Directions by the Speaker, Lok Sabha‟.
• Procedure
  • To ask a question, an MP has to first give a notice addressed to the lower house’s Secretary-General, intimating their intention to ask a question.
  • The notice usually contains:
    • the text of the question,
    • the official designation of the Minister to whom the question is addressed,
    • the date on which the answer is desired, and
    • the order of preference, in case the MP tables more than one notice of questions for the same day.
• Number of questions a member can ask
  • A Member is allowed to give not more than five notices of questions, both for oral and written answers, in all, for any day.
  • Notices received in excess of five from a Member for a day, are considered for the subsequent day(s) concerning that Minister(s) during the period of that session only.
  • Usually, the period of notice of a question is not less than 15 days.
• 2 Ways through which MPs can submit the notices of their questions
  • First, through an online ‘Member’s Portal’, where they have to enter their ID and password to get access.
  • Second, through the printed forms available in the Parliamentary Notice Office.
• Role of Speaker
  • After submission of the notices, the next stage is when the Speaker of Lok Sabha examines the notices of the questions in the light of the laid-out rules.
  • It is the Speaker, who decides if a question, or a part thereof, is or isn’t admissible.

Conditions for the admissibility of questions

• There are numerous rules that govern the admissibility of a question raised by an MP.
  • For example, questions shall not ordinarily contain more than 150 words.
  • They should not contain arguments, defamatory statements, refer to the character or conduct of any person except in their official or public capacity.
  • Queries raising larger issues of policy are not allowed, for it is not possible to enunciate policies within the limited compass of an answer to a question.
  • A question is not admissible if its subject matter is pending judgment before any court of law or any other tribunal or body set up under law or is under consideration before a Parliamentary Committee.
  • A query also canot seek information on matters which may weaken the unity and integrity of the country.

Different types of questions

• Starred questions
  • A starred question is asked by an MP and answered orally by the Minister-in-charge.
  • Each MP is allowed to ask one starred question per day.
  • Starred questions have to be submitted at least 15 days in advance (so that the Minister-in-charge has the time to prepare the answers) and only 20 questions can be listed for oral answers on a day.
  • When a question is answered orally, supplementary questions can be asked thereon.
  • Starred questions are better suited to inquire about the government’s views on issues and its policy inclination.
• Unstarred questions
  • An unstarred question receives a written reply from the Ministry. These also need to be submitted at least 15 days in advance.
  • Only 230 questions can be listed for written answers in a day.
  • Unlike starred questions, unstarred questions do not permit any follow-up questions.
  • Unstarred questions are more conducive for getting answers to queries related to data or information
• Short-notice questions
  • Short notice questions are ones pertaining to a matter of urgent public importance.
  • They can be asked with less than 10 days’ notice, with reasons for the short notice.
  • Like a starred question, they are answered orally, followed by supplementary questions.
• Questions addressed to private Members
  • The question to a private Member is addressed to the MP themselves.
  • It is asked when the subject matter pertains to any Bill, Resolution or any matter relating to the Business of the House for which that MP is responsible.

Importance of raising questions

• Asking questions is an inherent and unfettered parliamentary right of an MP.
• The exercise is meant to act as a parliamentary device to practise legislative control over executive actions.
• It can be used to:
  • get information on aspects of administration and government activity,
  • criticise government policies and schemes,
  • throw light on government lapses, and
  • push ministers to take substantive steps for the common good.

Q1) What are Short-notice questions?

Short notice questions are ones pertaining to a matter of urgent public importance. They can be asked with less than 10 days’ notice, with reasons for the short notice. Like a starred question, they are answered orally, followed by supplementary questions.

Q2) What are unstarred questions?

An unstarred question receives a written reply from the Ministry. These also need to be submitted at least 15 days in advance. Only 230 questions can be listed for written answers in a day. Unlike starred questions, unstarred questions do not permit any follow-up questions.

Source: Mahua Moitra and ‘cash for query’ row: How MPs ask questions in Lok Sabha

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in news?
• 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
• What is the Vienna Convention?
• What is Article 11.1 about?
• News Summary: Canada visa services now available only in Delhi
• What is the expected fallout of this situation?
• How many Indian students are there in Canada?
• Why do so many Indian students seek to study in Canada?
• How does having international (including Indian) students help Canada?

Why in news?

• Canada has stopped visa and consular services at its Chandigarh, Mumbai, and Bengaluru consulates. These services will now be available only at the Canadian High Commission in New Delhi.
• This has happened after Canada withdrew 41 diplomats from India after New Delhi said it would revoke their diplomatic immunity.
• Canada has since called for New Delhi to uphold its obligations under the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.
  • India insists that its actions are consistent with the tenets set forth in Article 11.1 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.

1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations

• The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations is an international treaty signed by 61 countries in 1961.
• It puts forth a framework for diplomatic interactions between independent nations and aims to ensure the ‘development of friendly relations among nations’.
• At present 193 countries are party to the document.

What is Article 11.1 about?

• Article 11.1 of the convention says that if there is no clear agreement on how big a mission should be, the country hosting the mission can ask that the mission size stays within what they consider reasonable and usual.
• This decision will depend on the situation in the hosting country and the mission's specific needs.

News Summary: Canada visa services now available only in Delhi

• Recently, Canada said it had withdrawn 41 diplomats following an Indian threat to unilaterally revoke their status. This decision is the most recent fallout of the diplomatic dispute between the two countries.
  • The diplomatic dispute was triggered by PM Trudeau’s allegation that India may have had a hand in the killing of a Khalistani separatist in Canada this June.

What is the expected fallout of this situation?

• The downsizing of Canada’s diplomatic corps and halting of visa and consular services in three major Indian cities will lead to a significant slowdown of Indian visa applications for Canada.
• A very large chunk of these visa applications are from Indian students who seek to study in Canadian universities.

How many Indian students are there in Canada?

• Around two million Canadians, 5% of the overall population, have Indian heritage.
• Canada is the second largest overseas destination for Indian students after the United States.
  • India is by far Canada’s largest source of global students, making up for roughly 40% of study permit holders.
• As of December 31, 2022, a total of 319,130 Indian students comprised 39.5% of the international student population in Canada.
• Other preferred destinations for Indian students: United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.
• In 2022, India was the top country for permanent residents, temporary foreign workers, and international students in Canada.

Why do so many Indian students seek to study in Canada?

• Apart from the fact that quality education in English is available at many levels and in a wide range of subjects, Canada’s government has worked proactively to attract foreign students.
• In 2022, it launched the Student Direct Stream (SDS), a fast-track visa processing programme for students from India, China, Philippines, and Vietnam.
• In April 2023, it announced a Post-Graduation Work Permit Extension programme, under which international students may stay on for up to three years after graduation, gaining valuable work experience and potentially a secure job in Canada.

How does having international (including Indian) students help Canada?

• Indian students make a substantial and positive contribution to the Canadian economy:
  • Through tuition fees for colleges and universities, and
  • by spending on living expenses such as food, accommodation, and transportation.
• Tuition fees for international students in Canada are typically two to three times what is paid by domestic students.
• Canada is a vast country, the world’s second-largest by area, with a very small population — less than 4 crore, which is comparable to that of Kerala.
• It is generally welcoming of immigrants, and the Canadian economy benefits from the labour of international students in critical sectors.

Q1) What is Post-Graduation Work Permit Extension programme?

The Post-Graduation Work Permit Extension program (PGWPP) allows international students who have graduated from Canadian designated learning institutions (DLIs) to obtain an additional 18-month open work permit (OWP). The PGWPP allows students to work for up to three years after they complete their studies in Canada. The length of a PGWP depends on the length of the program completed by the international graduate.

Q2) What is Student Direct Stream?

The Student Direct Stream (SDS) is a program in Canada that expedites the study permit processing for eligible students from 14 different countries. The SDS is offered by Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC).

Source: Canada visa services now available only in Delhi: How will Indian visa seekers, including students, be impacted? | Live Mint | Indian Express