What’s in Today’s article?

• Iron Age Latest News
• Iron Age in India
• Technological Advancements
• Archaeological Evidence
• Urbanization and Agriculture
• Social and Economic Impact
• Key Findings of the Study
• Tamil Nadu: A Pioneer in Metallurgy
• Advanced Iron-Smelling Techniques
• Significance of this study
• Iron Age FAQs

Iron Age Latest News

• A groundbreaking study suggests the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu began as early as 3,345 BCE, pushing back the region's iron usage timeline by over a millennium and challenging previous historical beliefs.
• Th report was authored by K Rajan (Pondicherry University) and R Sivanantham (Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology).

Iron Age in India

• The Iron Age in India marked a transformative period characterized by the widespread use of iron tools and weapons, significantly advancing agriculture, warfare, and societal structures. 
• Initially believed to have begun between 1500 and 2000 BCE, recent discoveries in Tamil Nadu have pushed the timeline back to as early as 3345 BCE.

Technological Advancements

• The Iron Age marked a significant leap in metallurgy, succeeding the Copper-Bronze Age. 
• Iron smelting required advanced furnaces capable of reaching 1534°C. 

Archaeological Evidence

• North India: Early iron use was linked to Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures in sites like Hastinapur, Kausambi, and Ujjain.
• Central India and Deccan: Iron-bearing Black and Red Ware (BRW) levels were found in Nagda, Eran, and Prakash.
• South India: Iron artefacts appeared during the overlap of the Neolithic and Megalithic phases.

Urbanization and Agriculture

• Iron tools, like axes and ploughs, were pivotal in clearing forests and expanding agriculture, contributing to the second urbanization in the Ganga valley (800–500 BCE).

Social and Economic Impact

• Iron technology facilitated forest clearance, agricultural growth, and urbanization, leading to increased socio-economic stratification. 
• The period also witnessed the emergence of chiefdoms, states, and trading networks, culminating in the Mauryan Empire's integration of diverse regions.
• The Iron Age laid the foundation for India's agrarian and urban transformations, influencing subsequent socio-political developments.

Key Findings of the Study

• The report, ‘Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu’, provides evidence that iron technology in Tamil Nadu existed as early as 3345 BCE. 
• The findings are supported by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) analyses.

Archaeological Sites Studied

• Iron-age samples were examined from key sites such as Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Mayiladumparai, and Kilnamandi, confirming Tamil Nadu's advanced metallurgical history.

Key Archaeological Discoveries

• Sivagalai: Evidence from charcoal and potsherds dates iron technology to 2953–3345 BCE, with a paddy sample dated to 1155 BCE.
• Mayiladumparai: Samples dated to 2172 BCE surpassed previous benchmarks for the region.
• Kilnamandi: A sarcophagus burial dated to 1692 BCE is the earliest of its kind in Tamil Nadu.

Tamil Nadu: A Pioneer in Metallurgy

• The findings establish Tamil Nadu as an innovator in early metallurgy. 
• Smelted iron, dated to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE, shows the region’s technological sophistication. 
• The Study hypothesise that the Copper Age of North India and the Iron Age of South India were contemporaneous, reflecting unique cultural trajectories.

Advanced Iron-Smelling Techniques

• Three distinct iron-smelting furnaces were identified at:
  • Kodumanal: Circular furnaces capable of reaching 1,300°C, sufficient for sponge iron production.
  • Chettipalayam and Perungalur: Showcased other innovative smelting techniques.
• These discoveries highlight Tamil Nadu's advanced understanding of pyro-technology and its ability to produce durable tools and weapons.

Significance of this study

• Iron Age Timeline in India Revised
• Previously believed to have emerged between 1500 and 2000 BCE, the Iron Age in India has been pushed back by new data from Tamil Nadu. 
• Radiometric dating of a paddy sample from a burial urn in Sivagalai places iron usage as far back as 3345 BCE, marking the earliest recorded evidence of iron technology globally.
• Global Implications
• Globally, the Iron Age has been attributed to the Hittite Empire (1300 BCE), but Tamil Nadu’s findings challenge this timeline.
• Turning point in Indian archaeology
• These findings represent a turning point in Indian archaeology, rewriting the history of the Iron Age and positioning Tamil Nadu as a key player in global metallurgical innovation.

Iron Age FAQs

Q1. When was the Iron Age started in India?

Ans. The Iron Age in India began around 3345 BCE, as revealed by recent findings from Tamil Nadu.

Q2. Which period is known as the Iron Age?

Ans. The Iron Age refers to the period marked by the widespread use of iron tools, beginning in India around 3345 BCE.

Q3. What is the Iron Age in Harappan civilization?

Ans. The Iron Age postdates the Harappan civilization, beginning during the Painted Grey Ware culture around 1500–2000 BCE. 

Q4. When was the new Iron Age?

Ans. The "new" Iron Age, based on Tamil Nadu discoveries, began as early as 3345 BCE, redefining its global timeline.

Q5. Who invented iron? 

Ans. Iron was not invented but discovered and smelted by ancient civilizations, with Tamil Nadu leading advancements in early metallurgy.

Source :IE; ET; FP

What’s in Today’s article?

• India's Fiscal Health Index Latest News
• Understanding the Fiscal Health Index
• Key Highlights from the FHI Report 2025 (2022-23 FY)
• Challenges and Recommendations
• Conclusion
• Fiscal Health Index FAQs

India's Fiscal Health Index Latest News

• The Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission, Dr. Arvind Panagariya, launched the inaugural issue of NITI Aayog’s report titled “Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2025”.

Understanding the Fiscal Health Index

• The Fiscal Health Index (FHI), introduced by NITI Aayog, provides a systematic framework to evaluate the fiscal performance of 18 major Indian states.
• This initiative highlights critical aspects of state finances, emphasizing the importance of transparency, revenue mobilization, and sustainable public financial management.
• The FHI assesses states using five sub-indices:
  • Quality of Expenditure,
  •  Revenue Mobilization,
  • Fiscal Prudence,
  • Debt Index, and
  • Debt Sustainability
• These metrics offer a comprehensive view of fiscal health, aiding policymakers in identifying areas for improvement and fostering best practices across states.

Key Highlights from the FHI Report 2025 (2022-23 FY)

• Top Performers:
  • Odisha: Ranked first with an FHI score of 67.8, Odisha excelled in Debt Index and Debt Sustainability due to its low fiscal deficit, strong debt management, and effective capital expenditure strategies.
  • Chhattisgarh: Achieved the second rank with strengths in Debt Index and revenue growth from mining activities.
  • Goa: Positioned third, excelling in Revenue Mobilization due to high tax efficiency and non-tax revenue generation.
• Aspirational States:
  • States like Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal faced challenges in debt sustainability and revenue mobilization, highlighting the need for fiscal reforms.
• Sub-Index Insights:
  • Quality of Expenditure:
    • States like Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh prioritized social and economic services, allocating substantial portions of their expenditure to health and education.
    • However, states such as Punjab and Rajasthan lagged in capital expenditure, impacting long-term developmental goals.
  • Revenue Mobilization:
    • Odisha, Goa, and Chhattisgarh led in revenue mobilization, leveraging non-tax revenues from mining and industrial activities.
    • States like Bihar and West Bengal struggled with low own-tax revenues, relying heavily on central transfers.
  • Fiscal Prudence:
    • Odisha and Jharkhand maintained fiscal prudence with lower fiscal deficits, enabling better allocation of resources toward development.
    • States with persistent revenue deficits, such as Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, faced constraints in managing fiscal stability.
  • Debt Index:
    • Maharashtra and Gujarat demonstrated robust debt management practices, maintaining low debt-to-GSDP ratios.
    • Conversely, Punjab and Haryana grappled with rising debt burdens and high interest payments.
  • Debt Sustainability:
    • Odisha and Chhattisgarh showcased sustainable debt management by ensuring economic growth outpaced interest payment growth.
    • In contrast, states like West Bengal and Punjab exhibited growing fiscal stress due to persistent deficits.

Challenges and Recommendations

• Revenue Diversification: States need to enhance their revenue base by tapping into non-tax sources and improving tax compliance.
• Capital Expenditure Focus: Prioritizing investments in infrastructure, health, and education is crucial for long-term growth.
• Debt Management: Adopting a comprehensive debt sustainability framework is essential for reducing fiscal stress.
• Transparency: Enhanced reporting mechanisms and adherence to fiscal responsibility norms will bolster accountability and public trust.

Conclusion

• The Fiscal Health Index serves as a vital tool for benchmarking state performance and identifying areas for fiscal improvement.
• While states like Odisha and Chhattisgarh exemplify strong fiscal discipline, others must adopt targeted strategies to overcome challenges.
• By fostering fiscal prudence, enhancing revenue mobilization, and ensuring debt sustainability, states can contribute to India's economic resilience and inclusive growth.
• Under NITI Aayog’s guidance, the FHI sets the stage for transformative fiscal reforms, ensuring a balanced and sustainable future for the nation.

Fiscal Health Index FAQs

Q1. What is the Fiscal Health Index (FHI)?

Ans. The FHI, introduced by NITI Aayog, evaluates the fiscal performance of 18 major Indian states through five key sub-indices.

Q2. Which states performed best in the Fiscal Health Index (FY 2023)?

Ans. Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Goa ranked as the top performers due to strong debt management and revenue mobilization.

Q3. What are the five sub-indices of the Fiscal Health Index?

Ans. The sub-indices are Quality of Expenditure, Revenue Mobilization, Fiscal Prudence, Debt Index, and Debt Sustainability.

Q4. What challenges do states like Punjab and Kerala face in fiscal health?

Ans. Punjab and Kerala struggle with debt sustainability and low revenue mobilization, necessitating fiscal reforms.

Q5. How can states improve their fiscal health according to the FHI?

Ans. States can enhance fiscal health by diversifying revenue sources, prioritizing capital expenditure, and ensuring robust debt management.

Source :TH | NITI Aayog

What’s in Today’s article?

• Essential religious practices Latest News
• Essential Religious Practices Doctrine
• Essential Religious Practices Overview
• Key Features
• Historical Context
• Notable Examples
• Bombay HC on Loudspeaker Use
• Court Observations
• Case Background
• Key Directives
• Essential religious practices FAQs

Essential Religious Practices Latest News

• Observing that the use of loudspeakers is not an essential part of any religion, Bombay high court directed the state to curb noise pollution by places of worship, irrespective of religion.

Essential Religious Practices Doctrine

• The essential religious practices (ERP) doctrine governs which religious practices are protected under Arts. 25 & 26 of the Constitution.

Essential Religious Practices Overview

• The doctrine is a legal framework created by the Supreme Court to balance the competing interests of freedom of religion and the state's ability to regulate practices. 
• It protects only those religious practices that are deemed essential to a particular religion.

Key Features

• Freedom of Religion: The doctrine protects practices that are essential to a religion, under the freedom of religion provisions in the Indian Constitution.
• State's Role in Social Reforms: The doctrine allows the state to implement social reforms without infringing on essential religious practices.
• Bifurcation of Practices: It distinguishes between essential and non-essential religious practices, offering protection only to those considered essential.

Historical Context

• First Articulation: The doctrine was first articulated in the 1954 case The Commissioner, Hindu Religious Endowments, Madras v. Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Sri Shirur Mutt.
• Criticism: The application of the doctrine has been criticized for being inconsistent and incoherent.

Notable Examples

• The Durgah Committee, Ajmer v. Syed Hussain Ali (1961): The court ruled that only practices that are essential and integral to a religion are protected.
• Ismail Faruqui v. Union of India (1994): The court ruled that a mosque is not an essential practice for the religion of Islam.

Bombay HC on Loudspeaker Use

• In a significant ruling, the Bombay High Court has declared that the use of loudspeakers is not an essential practice of any religion.

Court Observations

• Loudspeaker use is not an essential part of any religion and is not protected under Article 25 (freedom of religion).
• Noise pollution is a public health hazard and should be strictly controlled to safeguard citizens' rights.
• Law enforcement must ensure compliance with noise regulations and avoid being passive in such cases.

Case Background

• Residents of Nehru Nagar, Kurla East, filed a plea citing noise pollution by religious places beyond permissible decibel limits and hours.
  • Permissible limits: 55 decibels (daytime) and 45 decibels (nighttime) in residential areas.
• Complaints to local police stations were ignored, leading to the petition in the Bombay High Court.

Key Directives

• Police must measure decibel levels using mobile applications and seize equipment violating noise norms.
• Initial violations should result in warnings; repeated offenses may lead to fines, equipment seizure, and license cancellation.
• Police must ensure complainant anonymity to prevent retaliation.

Essential Religious Practices FAQs

Q1. What is the doctrine of essential religious practice (ERP)?

Ans. The ERP doctrine protects only religious practices deemed essential under Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution.

Q2. What was Shirur Mutt's case?

Ans. The 1954 case defined essential religious practices, ruling that only integral practices are protected under the Constitution.

Q3. What is the case of Seshammal in 1972?

Ans. The 1972 case addressed the practice of wearing a veil, ruling it wasn’t essential to Hinduism. 

Q4. Is hijab an essential religious practice?

Ans. The hijab’s status as an essential religious practice remains debated, with courts examining its religious significance and public order implications.

Q5. What is Article 25?

Ans. Article 25 guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to freely practice, profess, and propagate religion in India.

Source :TOI; IE; iPleaders