What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• What is Carbon farming?
• What are the challenges to carbon farming?
• What are the opportunities for carbon farming in India?

Why in News?

Carbon is found in all living organisms and many minerals. It is fundamental to life on earth and plays a crucial role in various processes, including photosynthesis, respiration, and the carbon cycle. 

Farming is the practice of cultivating land, raising crops, and/or livestock for food, fibre, fuel, or other resources. It encompasses a wide range of activities, from planting and harvesting crops to managing livestock and maintaining agricultural infrastructure.

Carbon farming combines these two concepts. It does so by implementing regenerative agricultural practices that restore ecosystem health while improving agricultural productivity and soil health, and mitigating climate change by enhancing carbon storage in agricultural landscapes and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

What is Carbon farming?

• About
  • Carbon farming is a set of agricultural practices that aim to store carbon in the soil, plant material, wood, and leaves. 
  • The goal of carbon farming is to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which can help mitigate climate change.
• Implementation of carbon farming
  • A simple implementation of carbon farming is rotational grazing. 
  • Others include agroforestry, conservation agriculture, integrated nutrient management, agro-ecology, livestock management, and land restoration.
    • Agroforestry practices can further diversify farm income by sequestering carbon in trees and shrubs. 
    • Conservation agriculture techniques such as zero tillage, crop rotation, cover cropping, and crop residue management can help minimise soil disturbance and enhance organic content.
    • Integrated nutrient management practices promote soil fertility and reduce emissions by using organic fertilizers and compost. 
    • Agro-ecological approaches such as crop diversification and intercropping have benefits for ecosystem resilience. 
    • Livestock management strategies including rotational grazing, optimising feed quality, and managing animal waste can reduce methane emissions and increase the amount of carbon stored away in pasture lands.
• Process

• Carbon farming schemes worldwide
  • In the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and Canada voluntary carbon markets have emerged. 
  • Initiatives like the Chicago Climate Exchange and the Carbon Farming Initiative in Australia demonstrate efforts to incentivise carbon mitigation activities in agriculture.
  • The launch of the ‘4 per 1000’ initiative during the COP21 climate talks in 2015 in Paris highlights the particular role of sinks in mitigating greenhouse-gas emissions. 
    • The oceans and the atmosphere are filled with carbon, and they approach their saturation points.
    • Hence, we must manage the remaining carbon budget of 390 billion tonnes or so wisely.

What are the challenges to carbon farming?

• Effectiveness and usefulness depend on multiple factors
  • The effectiveness of carbon farming varies depending on multiple factors — geographical location, soil type, crop selection, water availability, biodiversity, and farm size and scale.
  • Its usefulness also depends on land management practices, sufficient policy support, and community engagement.
• Carbon farming can be challenging in hot and dry areas
  • In regions with adequate rainfall and fertile soil, the potential for carbon sequestration through practices like agroforestry and conservation agriculture may be particularly high.
  • On the other hand, carbon farming can be challenging in hot and dry areas where the availability of water is limited. 
  • Limited water availability can hinder the growth of plants, thus restricting the potential for sequestration through photosynthesis.
    • E.g., practices like cover cropping, which require additional vegetation between main crop cycles, may not be viable due to the added water demand.
• Selecting which plants to grow
  • Selecting which plants to grow also becomes crucial because not all species trap and store carbon in the same amounts or in an equally effectively manner.
• Financial resources
  • The adoption of carbon farming practices may require financial assistance for farmers to overcome the costs of implementing them. 
  • Small-scale farmers may lack the resources to invest in sustainable land management practices and environmental services.

What are the opportunities for carbon farming in India?

• Financial benefits
  • Agro-ecological practices in India could yield significant economic benefits, with the potential to generate $63 billion in value from approximately 170 million hectares of arable land. 
  • This estimate includes an annual payment of around ₹5,000-6,000 per acre for farmers to provide climate services by adopting sustainable agricultural practices.
• Extensive agricultural land
  • Regions with extensive agricultural land, such as the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Deccan Plateau, are well suited to adopt carbon farming.
  • Coastal areas are prone to salinisation and have limited access to resources, thus limited the adoption of traditional farming practices.
• Carbon credit system
  • Carbon credit systems can incentivise farmers by providing additional income through environmental services. 
• India’s journey towards achieving carbon neutrality while maintaining food security
  • Studies have shown agricultural soils can absorb 3-8 billion tonnes of CO2-equivalent every year over 20-30 years. 
  • This capacity can bridge the gap between feasible emissions reductions and the indispensable stabilisation of the climate. 
  • So, carbon farming could also be a sustainable strategy to mitigate climate change and enhance food security in India.

Q.1. What is Carbon cycle?

The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon atoms move between the Earth's atmosphere and its organisms, and back again. The amount of carbon in this closed system remains constant, but its location is always changing.

Q.2. What is photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a biological process that converts light energy into chemical energy that organisms use to fuel their activities. It's a vital process for the Earth's atmosphere, producing and maintaining oxygen, and providing the energy for complex life.

Source: What is carbon farming? | Explained | Carbon Cycle Institute | BASF

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• What is Central bank digital currency (CBDC) or e-rupee?
• Key highlights of the speech delivered by RBI Governor

Why in News?

RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das said that permanent deletion of transactions can make the e-rupee or central bank digital currency (CBDC) become anonymous and make it at par with paper currency.

He made those remarks while speaking at the BIS Innovation Summit.

What is Central bank digital currency (CBDC) or e-rupee?

• About
  • CBDC is the legal tender issued by a central bank in a digital form. 
    • The digital rupee (e-Rupee) is the digital currency launched by Reserve Bank of India.
  • It is the same as a fiat currency and is exchangeable one-to-one with the fiat currency, only its form is different.
  • The central bank creates the CBDC and the banks distribute it.
  • To widen the reach of the e-rupee, the RBI recently announced the participation of non-banks in the pilot.
    • The idea is that their reach can be leveraged for distribution of CBDCs and for providing value-added services.
• Launch of Digital Rupee
  • RBI has demarcated the digital rupee into two broad categories: general purpose (retail) and wholesale.
    • This demarcation is based on the usage and the functions performed by the digital rupee and considering the different levels of accessibility.
  • From November 1, 2022, RBI launched its first pilot project to use digital rupee in the wholesale market for secondary trade in government securities (G-secs).
• From December 1,2022, retail digital rupee (e-R) pilot was launched.
  • In effect, the retail e-rupee is an electronic version of cash, and will be primarily meant for retail transactions. 
  • It is available for use by all — the private sector, non-financial consumers and businesses. It will be distributed through intermediaries, i.e., banks.
  • It will not earn any interest and can be converted to other forms of money, like deposits with banks.
• CBDC is non-remunerative
  • India has made CBDC non-remunerative, by making it non-interest bearing to mitigate any potential risks of bank disintermediation.
• Introduction of offline functionality in Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) -Retail
  • In February 2024, the RBI announced to introduce an offline functionality in CBDC-Retail for transactions in areas with poor or limited internet connectivity.
    • The CBDC Retail (CBDC-R) pilot currently enables Person to Person (P2P) and Person to Merchant (P2M) transactions. 
    • It is now proposed to enable additional functionalities of programmability and offline capability in CBDC retail payments. 
    • Programmability will facilitate transactions for specific/targeted purposes.
    • Offline functionality will enable these transactions in areas with poor or limited internet connectivity.

Key highlights of the speech delivered by RBI Governor

• CBDC transferable in the offline mode
  • He said that India is also working on making the CBDC transferable in the offline mode along with introducing the programmability feature to help its financial inclusion goals.
• Anonymity can be addressed through legislation and/or through technology
  • Since the introduction of the CBDC in late 2022, there have been concerns about the privacy aspect.
  • Many experts have said that the electronic nature will leave a trail of where all the currency has been used, unlike cash which offers anonymity.
  • In this context, the governor said that the anonymity can be addressed through legislation and/or through technology. 
    • For example, through permanent deletion of transactions.
  • The basic principle is that CBDC can have the same degree of anonymity as cash, no more and no less.
• UPI (unified payment interface) still popular among retail users
  • Despite the efforts which are being undertaken by the Reserve Bank, the RBI still sees preference for UPI (unified payment interface) among retail users.

Q.1. What is Unified Payments Interface (UPI)?

Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is a real-time payment system developed by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) in 2016. It allows users to make instant peer-to-peer (P2P), person-to-merchant (P2M), and person-to-person-merchant (P2PM) transactions using a mobile app.

Q.2. What is Fiat money?

Fiat money is a government-issued currency that is not backed by a commodity such as gold. Fiat money gives central banks greater control over the economy because they can control how much money is printed.

Source: Permanent deletion of transactions can help make e-rupee anonymous: Shaktikanta Das | The Hindu | Live Mint | Times of India

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• What are the Fundamental Constitutional Questions Around Religion-Based Reservation?
• The Concept of Equality and Equity
• Reservation and the Constitution of India
• The Observations of SC on Muslim Reservation
• How Indian States Dealt with Muslim Quota Question?

Why in News?

In election season, India is debating fundamental constitutional questions around religion-based reservation.

What are the Fundamental Constitutional Questions Around Religion-Based Reservation?

• Can a secular country like India have religion-based reservation?
• Have Muslims ever been given reservation by reducing the quota for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), or Other Backward Classes (OBCs)?
• Does reservation for SCs that is limited to only certain religious denominations amount to reservation based on religion?

The Concept of Equality and Equity:

• The Constitution of India moved away from equality (equal treatment for all) to equity, which ensures fairness and may require differential treatment or special measures for some groups.
• On the other hand, substantive equality is concerned with equality of outcomes. Affirmative action promotes this idea of substantive equality.
• As a result,
  • The Mandal Commission (1980), following the example set by several states, included a number of Muslim castes in the list of OBCs.
  • The Justice Rajinder Sachar Committee (2006) found that the Muslim community as a whole was almost as backward as SCs and STs, and more backward than non-Muslim OBCs.
  • The Justice Ranganath Misra Committee (2007) suggested 15% reservation for minorities, including 10% for Muslims.

Reservation and the Constitution of India:

• Article 15 (1) specifically prohibits the state from discriminating against citizens on grounds only of both religion and caste (along with sex, race, and place of birth).
• The first constitutional amendment inserted Article 15(4), which empowered the state to make any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the SCs or STs.
• Article 16 (1) states that there shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State.
• Article 16 (2) specifically prohibits the state from discriminating against citizens on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, in respect of any employment or office under the State.
• Article 16(4) enables the state to make any provision for reservation in favour of any backward class of citizens which is not adequately represented in the services under the state.

The Observations of SC on Muslim Reservation:

• In M R Balaji (1962), the SC held that while castes among Hindus may be an important factor to take into account when assessing the social backwardness of certain groups or classes of citizens, it cannot be the only test in this regard.
  • Therefore, it is possible that in some states certain Muslims, Christians or Jains form socially backward groups.
• In the E P Royappa vs State Of Tamil Nadu (1973), the SC has held that equality is a dynamic concept and cannot be confined within traditional limits.
• After the SC’s judgement in State of Kerala vs N M Thomas (1975), reservation is considered not an exception to the equality, but as an extension of equality. The crucial word in Articles 15 and 16 is ‘only’ - which implies that -
  • If a religious, racial, or caste group constitutes a weaker section (under Article 46) or
  • Constitutes a backward class, it would be entitled to special provisions for its advancement.
  • For example, some Muslim castes were given reservation without reducing the quota for SCs, STs, and OBCs by creating a sub-quota within the OBCs.
• The SC in Indra Sawhney (1992) laid down that any social group, if found to be backward under the same criteria as others, will be entitled to be treated as a backward class.

How Indian States Dealt with Muslim Quota Question?

• Kerala: Muslims, who constituted 22% of the population, were included within the OBCs in 1952.
• Karnataka: In 1995, the State government implemented 4% Muslim reservation within the OBC quota. 36 Muslim castes which are part of the central list of OBCs were included in the quota.
• TN: The State government passed a law in 2007 that provided within the 30% OBC quota, a subcategory of Muslims with 3.5% reservation. This did not include upper-caste Muslims.
• Andhra Pradesh (undivided): In 2004, the State government provided 5% reservation, treating the entire community as backward.
  • The HC struck down the quota on the technical ground.
  • However, it held that reservations for Muslims or sections/ groups among them, in no manner militate against secularism, which is part of the basic structure of the constitution.
• Telangana: After the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh in 2014, the Telangana government passed a law in 2017 proposing 12% reservation for OBC Muslims.
  • Since the proposal would take reservation beyond the 50% cap mandated by the SC (in 1992), it was referred to the central government for inclusion in the Ninth Schedule.
  • But the Centre did not bring the proposal to Parliament.

Q.1. Why was Mandal Commission set up?

The Mandal Commission or the Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission (SEBC), was established in India in 1979 by the Janata Party government under PM Morarji Desai with a mandate to identify the socially or educationally backward classes of India.

Q.2. What do you mean by affirmative action?

Government measures designed to assist members of underprivileged groups that have historically experienced discrimination in education, employment, etc., are collectively referred to as affirmative action.

Source: Expert Explains: The Muslim quota question

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• What is Boeing’s Starliner?
• What is the Mission?
• What Caused the Delay?
• Why is the Mission Significant?

Why in News?

The launch of the Boeing Starliner, which was set to take astronaut Sunita Williams to space for a third time, has been postponed due to a technical glitch.

What is Boeing’s Starliner?

• Starliner is a partially reusable crew capsule, officially known as CST-100 (crew space transportation).
• It consists of two modules.
  • One is the crew module, which can be reused up to 10 times, with a six-month turnaround.
  • The other is the service module - the powerhouse of the spacecraft - which supplies electricity, propulsion, thermal control, air, and water in space. This module is expandable.
• On its first crewed test flight, Boeing’s Starliner spacecraft would be carrying two NASA astronauts and will be launched on an Atlas V rocket from the Kennedy Space Center to the International Space Station (ISS).
  • The two NASA astronauts are Barry “Butch” Wilmore and Sunita Williams
• If the mission is successful, Boeing will become the second private firm to be able to provide NASA crew transport to and from the ISS, alongside Elon Musk’s SpaceX.

What is the Mission?

• The main objective of the mission is to see how Starliner performs in space with a crew onboard.
• It is supposed to dock with the ISS (a day after the launch) for around 10 days before it returns to the Earth.
• But before Starliner automatically docks with the space station, the crew members will test flying it manually.
• The crew will also test seats, assess onboard life-support and navigation systems, as well as evaluate the system that moves cargo into the ISS.
• The space suits worn by Wilmore and Williams will also be tested - these blue suits are around 40% lighter than their predecessors and have touchscreen-sensitive gloves.
• During the return journey, NASA and Boeing will be keeping an eye on the spacecraft’s heat shield and parachutes.
  • They will slow the descent before airbags open to soften the moment of impact with the ground.
  • Unlike other crew capsules, Starliner will land on the ground and not in the sea.

What Caused the Delay?

• After NASA retired its space shuttle fleet in 2011, it invited commercial space companies to help it transport astronauts and cargo to the ISS.
• Two companies got the contracts: SpaceX and Boeing. While SpaceX has been ferrying astronauts to and from the ISS since 2020, Boeing is yet to successfully launch its first crewed flight.
• Starliner’s first uncrewed flight itself came after four years of delay. Although it was set to take off in 2015, the company postponed it to 2019.
  • When it did finally happen, a series of software and hardware failures thwarted the spacecraft from getting into its planned orbit and docking with the ISS.
  • It took more than 80 fixes for Starliner to make its first successful uncrewed flight.
  • Even after achieving the goal, there were concerns about the performance of the spacecraft’s safety and cooling system.
• As a result, Boeing delayed the launch of Starliner’s first crewed flight from 2023 to where we are today.

Why is the Mission Significant?

• The mission’s success is crucial for both NASA and Boeing. Currently, NASA has only one private company, SpaceX, which can take its astronauts and cargo to the ISS.
• Starliner getting approval for conducting routine flights to and from the ISS would give NASA a backup and option to not depend on one company or vehicle for space launches.
• The success is more important for Boeing. If Starliner completes its objectives, it will also help Boeing challenge SpaceX’s dominance in the commercial space industry.

Q.1. What is the International Space Station (ISS)?

The ISS is a large space station assembled and maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies: NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, CSA, and their contractors.

Q.2. What is the Bharatiya Antariksha Station?

It is a planned modular space station to be constructed by India and operated by ISRO. Originally planned to be completed by 2030, it was later postponed to 2035 due to delays caused by technical issues related with the Gaganyaan crewed spaceflight mission and the COVID-19 pandemic in India.

Source: Why is the launch of Boeing’s Starliner significant?