About Rudragiri hillock: 

 

• It is located in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh.
• It is nestled amidst the Eastern Ghats, features five naturally formed rock shelters at its foothills, facing westward. 
• These shelters served as living quarters for people during the Mesolithic age around 5000 B.C and they bear witness to the luminous rock paintings of that era.
• Two natural caves at the southern end of the hillock also exhibit exceptional murals from the renowned Kakatiya kingdom.
• Key findings:
  • The first cave presents a narrative mural portraying the intense battle between the Vanara brothers, Vali and Sugriva. Both figures stand on the battlefield wielding maces, their faces displaying fierce determination. Rama, positioned behind Sugriva, shoots arrows at Vali.
  • A Ramayana fresco depicting Hanuman lifting the Sanjeevani hill with his right hand painted A conch and fire altars can be seen to his right and another prehistoric painting to the left.
  • In the middle cave, a grand sketch of Hanuman, accompanied by sacred symbols of the conch (Sankha) and the fire altar (Yagna Vedi), captures visitors’ attention. Hanuman is depicted carrying the Sanjivani hill in his right hand, symbolising his mission to save Lakshmana’s life.
  • The third cave houses the prehistoric rock paintings from the Mesolithic era.
  • Interestingly, the Kakatiya artist chose the same rock shelter to superimpose the elegant figure of Hanuman, who is portrayed in a unique ‘Anjali’ posture, folding his hands in a divine offering.
• The illustrious Ganapati Deva Maharaja (1199-1262 AD), the founder of Muppavaram temple and a prominent figure of the Kakatiya dynasty, likely patronised the rich ancient mural heritage found at Rudragiri.

 

What is the Mesolithic period?

• It is also called Middle Stone Age which existed between the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age).
• Timeframe: This period is generally considered to have occurred between approximately 12,000-10,000 years ago
• Lifestyle: During the Mesolithic period, human societies were predominantly hunter-gatherer communities.

 

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Q1) What is Fresco painting?

Fresco painting is a technique of mural painting that has been used for centuries, particularly during the Renaissance period. It involves applying pigments mixed with water onto wet plaster, which then binds the pigments to the wall as it dries. The term "fresco" originates from the Italian word "affresco," meaning "fresh."

Source: A fascinating fusion of rock art at Rudragiri hillock

About Srivilliputhur Megamalai Tiger Reserve (SMTR):

 

• Location:
  • It is spread across the districts of Theni, Virudhunagar and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
  • It lies in the Western Ghats region.
• SMTR is India's 51st tiger reserve and 5th tiger reserve of Tamil Nadu.
• It was formed in February 2021 by combining Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary and Megamalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
• It will function as a connecting link between Kerala’s Periyar Tiger Reserve and Tamil Nadu’s Southern Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
• SMTR will provide protection to Megamalai, the Vaigai River's primary catchment, in turn helping water levels to rise in the river.
• Flora: It’s a blend of tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, dry deciduous and moist mixed deciduous woods, and grasslands.
• Fauna:
  • Mammals: Elephants, Tiger, Leopard, Nilgiri Tahr, Gaur, Spotted Deer, Barking Deer, Sambar Deer, Wild Boar, Porcupine, Nilgiri Langur, Lion-Tailed Macaque etc.
  • Birds: Red-Whiskered Bulbul, Common Iora, White-Browed Wagtail, Grey Wagtail, Pied Bush Chat etc.
  • Reptiles: Wood Snake, Monitor Lizard, Chameleon, etc.

 

Key facts about Vaigai River:

• It is a river in Tamil Nadu state.
• Origin: It rises in the Varushanad Hills of the Western Ghats. 
• It travels through the Pandya Nadu region of Tamil Nadu.
• It is the major river in the fabled city of Madurai, the capital of the ancient and prosperous Pandya kingdom located in southern Tamil Nadu.
• The river finds a mention in Sangam literature dated to 300 before Common Era.
• Length: Vaigai River is 258 kilometres long.
• Tributaries: Its main tributaries are Suruliyaru, Mullaiyaru, Varaganadhi, Manjalaru, Kottagudi, Kridhumaal and Upparu.
• It finally empties into the Palk Strait near the Pamban Bridge in Ramanathapuram district.
• Vaigai Dam: The Vaigai dam is termed to be an important dam that is build across the river near Andipatti in the Theni district of Tamil Nadu.
• The river fulfils the drinking water requirement of five districts of Tamil Nadu namely, Theni, Madurai, Ramnathapuram, Sivagangai and Dindigul. It also provides irrigation to 200,000 hectares of agricultural land.
• The once perennial river is now completely dry, and animals in large numbers graze on its riverbed.

 

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Q1) Where is Megamalai?

Meghamalai , popularly called the Highwavy Mountains, is a mountain range situated in the Western Ghats in Theni district, Tamil Nadu near to Kumily, Kerala. It is dotted with cardamom plantations and tea estates. The place is situated at an elevation of 1,500 m above sea level and it is rich in flora and fauna

Source: 12 illegal resorts present in SMTR, Megamalai division: RTI

About Supreme Court Collegium:

 

• What is it?
  • It is a system under which appointments and transfers of judges are decided by a forum of the Chief Justice of India and the four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
  • It has no place in the Indian Constitution.
• What does the Constitution actually prescribe?
  • Article 124 deals with the appointment of Supreme Court judges. It says the appointment should be made by the President after consultation with such judges of the High Courts and the Supreme Court as the President may deem necessary. The CJI is to be consulted in all appointments, except his or her own.
  • Article 217 deals with the appointment of High Court judges. It says a judge should be appointed by the President after consultation with the CJI and the Governor of the state. The Chief Justice of the High Court concerned too should be consulted.
• Evolution of Collegium system:
  • Since Constitution mandates consultation with the CJI is necessary for appointments to judiciary, the collegium model evovled.
  • It has its genesis in a series of three judgments that is now clubbed together as the Three Judges Cases.
  • First Judges Case (1982):
    • SC held that "consultation" of judges does not mean concurrence.
    • Hence, it gave the primacy in appointment of judges to the Executive.
  • Second Judges Case (1993):
    • Court reversed its earlier ruling by changing the meaning of "consultation" to concurrence.
    • With this, the advice tendered by CJI became binding. However, the CJI would have to take into account the views of two of his senior most colleagues.
  • Third Judges Case (1998):
    • Court gave primacy to the opinion of CJI in the matter of appointment of Judges.
    • However, Chief Justice must consult four seniormost judges of SC.
    • Opinion of all members of the collegium should be in writing.
    • Even if two judges in the collegium give an adverse opinion of a person for appointment as the SC judge, the CJI should not send the recommendation to the government.
• These three cases established that the collegium headed by the Chief Justice of India will have primacy in the appointment of judges to the higher judiciary.
• This collegium makes recommendations to the government for appointment of judges to the SC and of Chief Justices of High Courts, and the transfers of HC judges.
• In case of difference of opinion, the majority view will prevail.
• Executive role:
  • Judges of the higher judiciary are thus appointed only through the collegium system, and the government has a role only after names have been decided by the collegiums.
  • The government’s role is limited to getting an inquiry conducted by the Intelligence Bureau (IB) if a lawyer is to be elevated as a judge in a High Court or the Supreme Court.
  • The government can also raise objections and seek clarifications regarding the collegium’s choices, but if the collegium reiterates the same names, the government is bound to appoint them.
• Procedure for appointment of Judges to High Courts:
  • For appointments or elevations to the high courts, the HC collegium (The HC Chief Justice + 2 senior-most judges) makes the recommendation to the state government.
  • The State Government sends the names to the Centre with its input.
  • The Centre gives the names to the Intelligence Bureau (IB) to conduct background checks.
  • The IB then sends its report to the Supreme Court Collegium (CJI + 2 Senior-most judges).
  • The SC Collegium goes through the IB report and recommends the names to the Centre for appointment.

 

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Q1) What is the Intelligence Bureau (IB)?

It is India's internal intelligence agency, responsible for gathering intelligence within the country's borders to address and counter various threats to national security. The IB operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs, which oversees the agency's functioning and activities.The IB works closely with other Indian intelligence and law enforcement agencies, such as the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) and the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), to coordinate efforts in protecting the nation's security and maintaining internal stability.

Source: SC Collegium recommends elevation of four advocates as judges to 3 HCs

About Foreign Subsidies Regulation (FSR):

 

• The European Union’s FSR entered into force on 12 January 2023.
• Aim: Combating distortions of competition on the EU internal market caused by foreign subsidies. 
• It will allow EU to investigate financial contributions granted by non-EU governments to companies active in the EU, and prohibit the award of public contracts to a company that has unduly profited from foreign subsidies.
• It imposes mandatory notification and approval requirements for acquisitions of significant EU businesses and large EU public tenders, and gives the European Commission (EC) extensive powers to launch ex officio investigations. 
• The EC is the sole enforcer of the FSR.
• In cases where the European Commission finds that a foreign subsidy is distorting competition, it can impose various remedies, including
  • fines of up to 10% of the company’s annual aggregated turnover;
  • requiring the company to repay the foreign subsidy if competition distortion is confirmed;
  • banning the company from participating in public procurement;
• What Counts as Foreign Financial Contributions under the FSR?
  • FSR covers financial contribution from non-EU governments to firms operating in/exporting to EU’s market.
  • Such a contribution may be distortive where it confers a benefit not normally available on the market to a company in the EU, and that benefit is specific to one or more companies or industries as opposed to all companies or all companies active in a particular industry.
  • The contributions include direct grant, low-interest loan, tax incentives on goods or services at below-market prices, and provision of land or buildings at below-market prices.
  • FSR applies to transactions above a certain threshold. Companies must notify the European Commission if their transactions involving foreign subsidies exceed this threshold.
  • For mergers and acquisitions, notification is mandatory if the combined value of the merging companies’ assets exceeds €500 million, but not necessary if the value of foreign subsidies is less than €1 million.

 

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Q1) What is the European Commission (EC)?

European Commission (EC), an institution of the European Union (EU) and its constituent entities that makes up the organization’s executive arm. The EC also has legislative functions, such as proposing new laws for the European Parliament, and judicial functions, such as finding legal solutions to business and trade issues between countries within the EU.

Source: EU’s new subsidy rule could hit India’s PLI

About Digital Time Vouchers: 

 

• The Election Commission of India has amended the existing scheme for the use of Government-owned electronic media by political parties.
• This has been done by introducing a provision to issue digital time vouchers through an Information Technology (IT) platform.
• Each party shall be given time Vouchers of different denominations of, 5 minutes and 10 minutes, equal to the total time allotted to it for telecasts on Doordarshan and broadcasts on AIR.
• That party shall have the discretion to choose any representatives and allow them to use those time vouchers provided that no such individual representative shall be allowed to use more than 20 minutes of the total time allotted to that party, either on Doordarshan or on AIR.
• Background
  • The scheme was initially notified on 16th January 1998, holds a statutory basis under Section 39A of the Representation of People Act, 1951.
  • It aimed at ensuring equitable access to government-owned electronic media during elections for campaigning.
  • Under this Scheme, an equitable base time is allotted to each National Party and Recognized State Party of the state concerned uniformly on DD & AIR.
  • The additional time to be allotted to the parties is decided on the basis of the poll performance of the parties in the last assembly elections from the respective States/UT or in the last general Elections to Lok Sabha, as the case may be.
  • The actual date and time during which the above telecasts/broadcasts will be made by the authorised representatives of any party is predetermined, by a lot, by the Prasar Bharati Corporation in consultation with ECI and in the presence of political party representatives.

 

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Q1) What is the Representation of the People Act, 1951?

The Representation of the People Act, 1951 is a significant piece of legislation in India that governs the conduct of elections in the country. It was enacted to amend and consolidate the laws relating to the preparation and revision of electoral rolls, the delimitation of constituencies, and the qualifications and disqualifications for membership of Parliament and State Legislatures.

Source: ECI to issue digital time vouchers to National & State political parties for campaigning on Doordarshan & All India Radio during elections

About DPT3 Vaccine: 

 

• The DPT vaccine is a class of combination vaccines against three infectious diseases in humans: diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus.
• The vaccine components include diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and either killed whole cells of the bacterium that causes pertussis or pertussis antigens.
• The primary dose of DPT provided as part of pentavalent vaccine and 2 booster doses are given at 16 -24 months and 5-6 years, respectively.
• Diphtheria:
  • It is an infectious disease caused by Corynebacterium diphtheria, a bacterium.
  • Vulnerable groups: Diphtheria particularly affects children aged 1 to 5 years. In temperate climates diphtheria tends to occur during the colder months.
• Tetanus
  • It is an infection caused by bacteria called Clostridium tetani.
  • When these bacteria enter the body, they produce a toxin that causes painful muscle contractions.
  • Tetanus bacteria are more likely to infect certain breaks in the skin
  • It does not spread from person to person.
• Pertussis
  • It is also known as whooping cough.
  • It is a very contagious respiratory illness caused by a type of bacteria called Bordetella pertussis. 
  • Whooping cough bacteria attach to the cilia (tiny, hair-like extensions) that line part of the upper respiratory system.
  • The bacteria release toxins (poisons), which damage the cilia and cause airways to swell.
  • It can spread easily from person to person through the air.

 

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Q1) What is Immunization?

Immunization, also known as vaccination or immunization, is a process by which a person is protected against certain infectious diseases. It involves administering vaccines, which are substances that stimulate the immune system to produce an immune response without causing the actual disease.

Source: India recorded all-time high of 93% DPT3 immunisation coverage in 2022: WHO