{"id":2741,"date":"2026-01-02T13:54:39","date_gmt":"2026-01-02T08:24:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=2741"},"modified":"2026-01-03T15:44:56","modified_gmt":"2026-01-03T10:14:56","slug":"schools-of-indian-philosophy-orthodox-and-heterodox","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/schools-of-indian-philosophy-orthodox-and-heterodox\/","title":{"rendered":"Schools of Indian Philosophy, Orthodox and Heterodox Schools"},"content":{"rendered":"

Indian philosophy<\/strong>\u00a0encompasses several philosophical traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophy. They include both orthodox (Astika) systems, such as the\u00a0Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-Mimamsa<\/strong>\u00a0(or Mimamsa), and\u00a0Vedanta\u00a0<\/strong>schools of thought, and unorthodox (nastika) systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism. The book Sarva Darsana Samgraha, written by Sri Madhavacariya,<\/strong>\u00a0contains the quintessence of a few systems of thought that evolved in ancient India.<\/p>\r\n

Indian philosophical thoughts have been dealing with various philosophical aspects, significant among which are the nature of the world (cosmology), the nature of reality (metaphysics), logic, the nature of knowledge (epistemology), ethics, and the philosophy of religion.<\/p>\r\n

Concepts of Indian Philosophy<\/h2>\r\n

Indian philosophy has been designated as\u00a0\u2018darsana\u2019,<\/strong>\u00a0generally translated as philosophy, but it means\u00a0intuitive vision<\/strong>. The intuitive vision consists of wisdom about reality and the inner and outer secrets of human life. The interpretations of such wisdom form the basis of philosophical inquiry about metaphysical doctrines, logical truths, ethical codes and religious practices.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

    \r\n\t
  • Concept of Punarjanam:<\/strong>\u00a0According to Hindu theories of reincarnation or rebirth, individuals\u00a0repeatedly reincarnate<\/strong>, pass through many cycles of births and deaths, and live in numerous bodies as they evolve from simple organisms to complex beings and finally into humans.\r\n\r\n
      \r\n\t
    • The cycle of rebirth ends when they achieve perfection and\u00a0'Moksha' (liberation).<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Concept of Rina:<\/strong>\u00a0Rina, meaning debt, is related to the sense of obligation of a man to his duties and to ensure continuity in tradition. The three major types of debts are\u00a0Guru Rina, Pitru Rina and Deva Rina.<\/strong>\u00a0These debts in life have to be repaid by a man to attain\u00a0moksha ( liberation).<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
    • Major schools agreed that man should strive for the fulfilment of\u00a0four goals:<\/strong>\r\n
        \r\n\t
      • Artha<\/strong>: Economic means or wealth<\/li>\r\n\t
      • Dharma<\/strong>: Moral life<\/li>\r\n\t
      • Kama<\/strong>: Emotional fulfilment, Pleasure<\/li>\r\n\t
      • Moksha<\/strong>: Liberation<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

        Types of Schools in Indian Philosophy<\/h2>\r\n

        The schools of Indian Philosophy are broadly categorised as Heterdox and Orthodox Schools:<\/p>\r\n

          \r\n\t
        • The\u00a0Vedic scripture<\/strong>\u00a0is an ancient treasure trove that exemplifies the Vedic systems' cultural heritage as well as their religio-philosophical aspects.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • It contained both\u00a0ritualistic and philosophical materials.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
        • A philosophical system like\u00a0Purva Mimamsa<\/strong>\u00a0directly developed their doctrines from the ritualistic portion, and other schools of\u00a0Vedanta<\/strong>\u00a0built up their philosophical system from the Upanishads, the philosophical part of the\u00a0Vedas<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Generally, Indian philosophical systems are classified as\u00a0orthodox (Astika) and heterodox (Nastika) systems<\/strong>\u00a0based on acceptance or rejection of the Vedic authority.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • The philosophical schools that accept the Vedic authority are\u00a0Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
        • However, Carvaka,<\/strong>Jainism<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0Buddhism<\/strong>\u00a0do not accept Vedic authority.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

          Orthodox School of Indian Philosophy<\/h2>\r\n

          This school believed that Vedas were the supreme revealed scriptures that held the secret to\u00a0salvation.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

            \r\n\t
          • They never questioned the Vedas' authenticity.<\/li>\r\n\t
          • They take the ancient Vedas as their source and scriptural authority.<\/li>\r\n\t
          • The main Hindu orthodox\u00a0(astika) schools<\/strong>\u00a0of Indian philosophy were codified during the medieval period of\u00a0Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
          • They had six Shada Darshana sub-schools: Samkhya (or Sankhya), Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

            Samkhya School<\/h3>\r\n
            \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
            Founder: Kapil Mani<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCore Philosophy:<\/strong>\u00a0It postulates that everything, in reality, stems from\u00a0Purusha\u00a0<\/strong>(self or soul or mind) and\u00a0Prakriti<\/strong>\u00a0(matter, creative agency, energy).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
            \r\n

            - This is the\u00a0oldest school<\/strong>\u00a0of philosophy.<\/p>\r\n

            - Samkhya's tendency of thought pervades all the literature of ancient India, including the\u00a0Srutis, Smritis and Puranas.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

            - According to tradition, the first work of the Samkhya School is the\u00a0Samkhya-sutra.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

            - The Samkhya is a dualistic realism philosophy.<\/p>\r\n

            -\u00a0Theory of Causation:<\/strong>\u00a0The Samkhya metaphysics, especially its doctrine of Prakriti, rests mainly on its theory of causation, known as\u00a0satkarya-vada.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

            - It accepts only\u00a0three\u00a0<\/strong>types of\u00a0knowledge (pramana):<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

              \r\n\t
            • Pratyaksha:<\/strong>\u00a0Perception<\/li>\r\n\t
            • Anumana:<\/strong>\u00a0Inference<\/li>\r\n\t
            • Shabda:<\/strong>\u00a0Hearing<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

              Yoga School<\/h3>\r\n
              \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
              Founder: Patanjali<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCore philosophy:<\/strong>\u00a0It postulates that one can\u00a0achieve salvation<\/strong>\u00a0by combining\u00a0meditation and physical application.<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
              \r\n

              - Yoga acknowledges\u00a0God's existence<\/strong>\u00a0as a teacher and guide.<\/p>\r\n

              -\u00a0View of Patanjali:<\/strong>\u00a0Yoga does not mean union but the spiritual effort to attain perfection through controlling the body, senses and mind and through right discrimination between\u00a0Purusa and Prakrti.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

              - Patanjali's Yoga sutra is divided into four sections:<\/p>\r\n

                \r\n\t
              • Samadhi-pada:<\/strong>\u00a0Nature and aim of concentration<\/li>\r\n\t
              • Sadhanapada:<\/strong>\u00a0Means to realise this end<\/li>\r\n\t
              • Vibhutipada:<\/strong>\u00a0Supra-normal powers which can be acquired through Yoga<\/li>\r\n\t
              • Kaivalyapada:<\/strong>\u00a0Nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental self<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                - Yoga is the practical path of realising the theoretical ideals of Samkhya Philosophy.<\/p>\r\n

                - The prescribed\u00a0eight sadanas<\/strong>\u00a0to achieve mukti or freedom are:<\/p>\r\n

                  \r\n\t
                • Yama:<\/strong>\u00a0Self-restrained<\/li>\r\n\t
                • Niyama:<\/strong>\u00a0Positive rules of conduct<\/li>\r\n\t
                • Pratyahara:<\/strong>\u00a0Choosing an object<\/li>\r\n\t
                • Dharna:<\/strong>\u00a0Fixing the mind on the object of meditation<\/li>\r\n\t
                • Dhyana:<\/strong>\u00a0Meditation(undisturbed flow of thought)<\/li>\r\n\t
                • Samadhi:<\/strong>\u00a0Completely absorbed in the object of meditation<\/li>\r\n\t
                • Asanas:<\/strong>\u00a0Steady and comfortable posture<\/li>\r\n\t
                • Prayanams:<\/strong>\u00a0Breathing exercises<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

                  Nyaya School<\/h3>\r\n
                  \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                  Founder:\u00a0<\/strong>Akshpaad Gautam<\/td>\r\nCore philosophy:\u00a0<\/strong>They believe in the technique of\u00a0logical thinking<\/strong>\u00a0to achieve salvation.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                  \r\n

                  - Nyaya is an atomic pluralist and logical realist system.<\/p>\r\n

                  - It acknowledges four distinct sources of true knowledge:<\/p>\r\n

                    \r\n\t
                  • Pratyaksa:<\/strong>\u00a0perception<\/li>\r\n\t
                  • Anumana:<\/strong>\u00a0inference<\/li>\r\n\t
                  • Upamana:<\/strong>\u00a0comparison<\/li>\r\n\t
                  • Sabda:<\/strong>\u00a0Testimony<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                    - Theory of Knowledge: Knowledge or Cognition <\/strong>is defined as apprehension or consciousness. They hold that knowledge reveals both the subject and the object; they are not the same as knowledge.<\/p>\r\n

                    -\u00a0Concept of God:<\/strong>\u00a0God is the\u00a0ultimate cause of the world's creation,<\/strong>\u00a0maintenance and destruction.<\/p>\r\n

                      \r\n\t
                    • God is the eternal, infinite self that creates, sustains, and destroys the universe. He does not create the world out of nothing but eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

                      Vaisheshika School<\/h3>\r\n
                      \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                      Founder: Kanada<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCore philosophy:<\/strong>\u00a0All objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of\u00a0atoms.<\/strong>\u00a0Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force in these atoms that causes consciousness.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                      \r\n

                      - Vaisesika develops\u00a0metaphysics and ontology.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                      -\u00a0Views on God<\/strong>: The Vaisesika theory is substantially similar to the Nyaya's.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                      - According to the Vaisheshika school, the\u00a0laws of Karma guide this universe.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                      - They contended that the Universe was created by the five main elements known as\u00a0Dravya\u00a0<\/strong>(fire, air, water, earth, and sky).<\/p>\r\n

                      - The Vaisesika system is considered conducive to studying all systems.<\/p>\r\n

                      - Its primary goal is to deal with categories and reveal its atomistic pluralism.<\/p>\r\n

                      - All knowledge must necessarily point to an object of knowledge, which is referred to as a Padartha.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

                      Mimamsa School (Purva Mimamsa)<\/h3>\r\n
                      \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                      Founder: Jamini\u00a0<\/strong><\/th>\r\nCore Philosophy:\u00a0<\/strong>Mimamsa philosophy is the\u00a0analysis of interpretation<\/strong>, application and use of the text of the\u00a0Samhita and Brahmana\u00a0<\/strong>portions of the Veda.<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                      \r\n

                      - Mimamsa is an etymological term that means \"resolution of some problem through\u00a0reflection\u00a0<\/strong>and\u00a0critical examination<\/strong>.\" Mimamsa developed the ritualistic aspect of the\u00a0Vedas<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n

                      - The\u00a0Jaiminiya sutra<\/strong>\u00a0is the work that established the principles of this school.<\/p>\r\n

                      -\u00a0Sabaraswami<\/strong>\u00a0wrote the significant commentary\u00a0(bhasya)<\/strong>\u00a0for this work.<\/p>\r\n

                      - The most famous and important commentators are\u00a0Kumarila Bhatta<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0PrabhakaraMisra,<\/strong>\u00a0who founded the two schools of philosophy named after them \u2013 the\u00a0Bhatta School<\/strong>\u00a0of Mimamsa and the\u00a0Prabhakara School<\/strong>\u00a0of Mimamsa.<\/p>\r\n

                      -\u00a0Apadeva<\/strong>\u00a0wrote an elementary work on the Mimamsa known as\u00a0Mimamsaanyayaprakasa<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n

                      - Mimamsa accepts five non-perceptual\u00a0sources of knowledge<\/strong>. They are:\u00a0anumana<\/strong>,\u00a0upamana<\/strong>,\u00a0sabda<\/strong>,\u00a0arthapatti\u00a0<\/strong>(postulation) and\u00a0anupalabdhi\u00a0<\/strong>(non-perception).<\/p>\r\n<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

                      Vedanta School<\/h3>\r\n
                      \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                      Founder: Vyasa\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCore Philosophy:<\/strong>\u00a0Brahm is the reality of life, and everything else is unreal. They equalise\u00a0atma<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0Brahm,<\/strong>\u00a0and if a person attains the knowledge of the self, he would automatically understand Brahm and achieve\u00a0salvation<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                      \r\n

                      - The term Vedanta means in Sanskrit the \u201cconclusion\u201d (anta) of the Vedas,\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                      - It applies to the Upanishads and the school that arose from the study (Mimamsa<\/em>) of the Upanishads.<\/p>\r\n

                      - They believed in the theory of punarjanama.<\/p>\r\n

                      - The text\u00a0Brahmasutra of Badrayana<\/strong>\u00a0formed the basis of this philosophy.<\/p>\r\n