{"id":30010,"date":"2026-09-17T17:41:07","date_gmt":"2026-09-17T12:11:07","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=30010"},"modified":"2026-09-17T17:41:07","modified_gmt":"2026-09-17T12:11:07","slug":"unfccc","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/unfccc\/","title":{"rendered":"UNFCCC, Members, History, Objectives, COPs, Paris Agreement"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, abbreviated as UNFCCC, is the foundational international framework for addressing climate change through global cooperation. Adopted in 1992 and entering into force in 1994, it seeks to stabilise greenhouse-gas concentrations at levels that prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Convention provides the institutional basis for international negotiations, climate finance, technology transfer, adaptation, transparency and emissions reduction. It has evolved through major milestones, including the Kyoto Protocol, the Copenhagen Accord and the Paris Agreement, supported by annual Conferences of the Parties (COPs). With 198 Parties, the UNFCCC remains the central platform for multilateral climate governance. India, a Non-Annex I Party, actively participates while emphasising equity, climate justice and sustainable development.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Overview<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The full form of UNFCCC is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It is the principal international climate treaty that establishes common rules and institutions for countries to cooperate in addressing human-induced climate change and its consequences.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Convention's ultimate objective is to stabilise greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous human interference with the climate system. It also seeks to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally, protect food production and enable sustainable economic development.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The UNFCCC is a framework convention, meaning that it establishes broad principles, commitments and institutions rather than prescribing a single detailed emission-reduction programme for every country.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Secretariat<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The UNFCCC Secretariat provides the institutional, administrative, technical and organisational support necessary for the functioning of the Convention, Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Secretariat was created in 1992, with its original location in Geneva. Since 1996, it has been based in Bonn, Germany.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Members<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The UNFCCC has universal membership, making it the central multilateral platform for international climate negotiations and decision-making.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">As of 2026, the Convention has 198 Parties: 197 States and one regional economic integration organisation, which is the <\/span><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/european-union\/\" target=\"_blank\">European Union<\/a><\/strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Convention historically classified Parties into different categories:<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Annex I Parties: Industrialised countries and economies in transition.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Annex II Parties: Developed countries with additional responsibilities relating to finance and technology transfer.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Non-Annex I Parties: Primarily developing countries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">India is classified as a Non-Annex I Party<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC History<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The history of UNFCCC reflects the gradual evolution of international climate governance from scientific concern and framework-building towards legally binding and increasingly universal climate action.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>1979:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The First World Climate Conference highlighted the emerging international concern about climate change.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>1988<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established by WMO and UNEP.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>1990<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The IPCC's First Assessment Report and the Second World Climate Conference strengthened calls for an international climate treaty.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>1990<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The <\/span><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/the-united-nations-un\/\" target=\"_blank\">UN<\/a><\/strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> General Assembly established the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>1991\u20131992<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The negotiating committee held five sessions and prepared the Convention.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>9 May 1992<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The UNFCCC was adopted in New York.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>June 1992<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: It was opened for signature at the Rio Earth Summit.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>21 March 1994:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The Convention entered into force after the 50th instrument of ratification was deposited.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>1995:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> COP1 was held in Berlin and launched the Berlin Mandate.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>1997<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: COP3 adopted the Kyoto Protocol.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>2005<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Kyoto Protocol entered into force.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>2009<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: COP15 produced the Copenhagen Accord.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>2015<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: COP21 adopted the Paris Agreement.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>2021:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> COP26 adopted the Glasgow Climate Pact.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>2023<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: COP28 completed the first <\/span><b>global stocktake<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> under the Paris Agreement.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>2024<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: COP29 in Baku focused strongly on climate finance.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>2025<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: COP30 was held in Bel\u00e9m, Brazil.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Objectives<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The objectives of the UNFCCC provide the basic principles for global climate cooperation, combining climate protection with sustainable development and differentiated national responsibilities.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Stabilisation of <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/greenhouse-gases\/\" target=\"_blank\"><b>greenhouse gases<\/b><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Convention seeks to stabilise atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Sustainable development<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Climate action should be pursued without undermining sustainable economic development, particularly in developing countries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Protection of food production<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Convention seeks to ensure that climate change does not threaten food production and food security.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Ecosystem protection<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Climate policy should provide sufficient time and conditions for ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>International cooperation<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Countries are expected to cooperate in developing appropriate responses to climate change through mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology and capacity-building.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Support for developing countries<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Developed countries are expected to provide financial resources and facilitate technology transfer to developing countries<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Principles<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The principles of UNFCCC guide Parties in implementing the Convention while balancing climate protection, equity, sustainable development and the differing capacities of developed and developing countries.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Equity and Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> All countries share responsibility for protecting the climate system for present and future generations, but their responsibilities differ according to their capabilities and circumstances.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Developed countries are expected to take the lead in addressing climate change and its adverse effects.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Special Consideration for Developing Countries<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The specific needs and circumstances of developing countries, particularly those highly vulnerable to climate impacts, should receive special consideration.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">This also includes countries that may face an unusually high burden from implementing climate-related measures.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Precautionary Principle:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Countries should take preventive and precautionary measures to anticipate, minimise and address climate risks.<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A lack of complete scientific certainty should not be used to delay action where there is a risk of serious or irreversible environmental damage.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Cost-Effective and Comprehensive Action:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Climate policies should seek maximum global benefits at the lowest possible cost while considering different socio-economic conditions.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Measures should address relevant greenhouse-gas sources, sinks and reservoirs, adaptation needs and different economic sectors.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Sustainable Development:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Countries have the right to pursue sustainable development. Climate policies should be integrated with national development priorities and adapted to each country's specific circumstances, recognising that economic development is important for addressing climate change.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>International Cooperation and Open Economic System<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Countries should cooperate to create an open and supportive international economic system that promotes sustainable economic growth, particularly in developing countries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Frameworks and Agreements<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The UNFCCC framework has progressively developed through the Convention, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement and several major COP decisions that shaped the international climate regime.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>UNFCCC, 1992: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Convention established the foundational principles, institutional structure, reporting requirements and international cooperation framework.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Kyoto Protocol, 1997: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Kyoto Protocol translated the Convention's principles into quantified emission-reduction commitments for developed countries and economies in transition. It was adopted at COP3 in Kyoto on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It introduced three important market-based mechanisms: Emissions Trading, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI).<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Bali Action Plan, 2007<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Bali Action Plan initiated negotiations towards a strengthened post-2012 climate regime, covering mitigation, adaptation, technology and finance.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Copenhagen Accord, 2009<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Copenhagen Accord recognised the importance of limiting global warming and established a political basis for subsequent climate negotiations, although it was not a legally binding treaty.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Cancun Agreements, 2010<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Cancun Agreements strengthened the institutional architecture for adaptation, finance, technology and transparency and contributed to the establishment of mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund and Adaptation Committee.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Durban Platform, 2011<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Durban Platform launched negotiations for a new legal instrument applicable to all Parties, ultimately leading to the Paris Agreement.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Warsaw Framework (2013) and Lima Call for Climate Action (2014): <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Warsaw Framework for REDD+ strengthened approaches to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, while the Lima Call for Climate Action helped prepare the ground for the Paris Agreement.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Paris Agreement, 2015<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Paris Agreement transformed the climate regime into a more universal framework based on nationally determined contributions, transparency, adaptation and progressively increasing ambition.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Glasgow Climate Pact, 2021<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Glasgow Climate Pact strengthened the focus on keeping the 1.5\u00b0C goal within reach, adaptation, finance and implementation.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Global Stocktake:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The Global Stocktake periodically assesses collective progress towards achieving the objectives of the Paris Agreement and informs the preparation of subsequent NDCs.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC COPs<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Conference of the Parties is the supreme decision-making body of the Convention and meets annually to review implementation, adopt decisions and negotiate further climate action.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<table style=\"width: 92.8854%\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" style=\"width: 11.1109%\"><b>COP<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" style=\"width: 7.28755%\"><b>Year<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" style=\"width: 17.84%\"><b>Place<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" style=\"width: 55.6164%\"><b>Major outcome \/ declaration<\/b><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP1<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1995<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Berlin, Germany<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Berlin Mandate<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP2<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1996<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Geneva, Switzerland<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Geneva Ministerial Declaration<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP3<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1997<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Kyoto, Japan<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Kyoto Protocol<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP4<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1998<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Buenos Aires, Argentina<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Buenos Aires Plan of Action<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP5<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1999<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bonn, Germany<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Continued Kyoto implementation negotiations<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP6<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2000<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Hague, Netherlands<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Negotiations on Kyoto rules; session suspended<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP6 resumed<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2001<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bonn, Germany<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bonn Agreements<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP7<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2001<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Marrakech, Morocco<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Marrakesh Accords<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP8<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2002<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">New Delhi, India<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Delhi Ministerial Declaration<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP9<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2003<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Milan, Italy<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Rules on land use, forestry and Kyoto mechanisms<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP10<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2004<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Buenos Aires, Argentina<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Buenos Aires Programme of Work<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP11<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2005<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Montreal, Canada<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Montreal Action Plan; Kyoto implementation<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP12<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2006<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Nairobi, Kenya<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Nairobi Framework<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP13<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2007<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bali, Indonesia<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bali Action Plan \/ Bali Road Map<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP14<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2008<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pozna\u0144, Poland<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pozna\u0144 Strategic Programme<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP15<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2009<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Copenhagen, Denmark<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Copenhagen Accord<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP16<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2010<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Canc\u00fan, Mexico<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Canc\u00fan Agreements<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP17<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2011<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Durban, South Africa<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Durban Platform<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP18<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2012<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Doha, Qatar<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Doha Amendment to Kyoto Protocol<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP19<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2013<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Warsaw, Poland<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Warsaw Framework for REDD+; Warsaw Mechanism for Loss and Damage<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP20<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2014<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lima, Peru<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lima Call for Climate Action<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP21<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2015<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Paris, France<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Paris Agreement<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP22<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2016<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Marrakech, Morocco<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Marrakech Action Proclamation<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP23<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2017<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bonn, Germany<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Fiji Momentum for Implementation; Launched Talanoa Dialogue<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP24<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2018<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Katowice, Poland<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Katowice Climate Package, Talanoa Dialogue Completed<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP25<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2019<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Madrid, Spain<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Chile-Madrid Time for Action; Article 6 negotiations remained unresolved<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP26<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2021<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Glasgow, UK<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Glasgow Climate Pact; called for phasedown of unabated coal power and phase-out of inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP27<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2022<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan; Loss and Damage Fund decision<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP28<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2023<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Dubai, UAE<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UAE Consensus; first Global Stocktake outcome and called for transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems in a just, orderly and equitable manner.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP29<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2024<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Baku, Azerbaijan<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG): at least $300 billion\/year by 2035; efforts to scale climate finance to $1.3 trillion\/year by 2035.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 11.1109%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP30<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 7.28755%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2025<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 17.84%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bel\u00e9m, Brazil<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 55.6164%\">\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bel\u00e9m outcomes \/ political package<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>COP31<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> is scheduled for Antalya, T\u00fcrkiye, in November 2026.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP decisions, declarations, accords and agreements do not all have the same legal status. For example, the Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty, whereas some COP political outcomes, such as the Copenhagen Accord, were not legally binding in the same manner.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC and Paris Agreement<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Paris Agreement is the central modern climate agreement under the UNFCCC framework, replacing the narrower Kyoto architecture with a universal system involving all countries.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Adopted at COP21 in Paris on 12 December 2015, the Agreement seeks to:<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Keep global temperature rise well below 2\u00b0C above pre-industrial levels.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pursue efforts to limit warming to 1.5\u00b0C.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Strengthen adaptation capacity.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Make financial flows consistent with low-emission and climate-resilient development.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Increase transparency of climate action and support.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Encourage progressively stronger national climate commitments.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Enhanced Transparency Framework:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The Paris Agreement created an enhanced transparency framework through which countries report information on emissions, progress towards NDCs, adaptation and support.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Nationally Determined Contributions<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: NDCs are at the heart of the Paris Agreement. Countries submit and periodically update their national climate plans covering mitigation, adaptation and, where applicable, finance, technology and capacity-building needs.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Global Stocktake<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Global Stocktake assesses collective progress and is intended to inform stronger future climate action. It occurs every five years.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Reports<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC reports provide the evidence base for assessing national commitments, emissions, climate policies, adaptation, finance and progress under the Convention and Paris Agreement. Major categories include:<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">National Communications (NCs).<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs).<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">National Inventory Reports (NIRs).<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">NDC Synthesis Reports.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Adaptation Communications.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Long-Term Low-Emission Development Strategies (LT-LEDS).<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Global stocktake-related reports.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COP, CMP and CMA session reports.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Reports of subsidiary and constituted bodies.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The UNFCCC's 2025 BTR Synthesis Report analysed more than 100 first Biennial Transparency Reports and National Inventory Reports, covering information representing around 75% of global greenhouse-gas emissions in 2020.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC and India<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">India and UNFCCC engagement reflects India's emphasis on climate action alongside development needs, equity, climate finance, technology transfer and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">India is a Non-Annex I Party to the UNFCCC.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It ratified the Kyoto Protocol on 26 August 2002 and signed the Paris Agreement on 22 April 2016, ratifying it on 2 October 2016. India's major areas of engagement<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Advocating CBDR-RC and climate equity.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Supporting stronger climate action while protecting development priorities.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Emphasising climate finance and technology transfer for developing countries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Participating in UNFCCC negotiations and COPs.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Submitting national communications and other climate reports.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Implementing its NDC commitments through domestic policies.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Supporting international initiatives such as the\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/international-solar-alliance\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>International Solar Alliance<\/strong><\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> and Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">India at COP8<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">India hosted COP8 in New Delhi in 2002, where the Delhi Ministerial Declaration emerged as a significant outcome. It reinforced the importance of sustainable development and recognised the particular vulnerabilities and development needs of developing countries.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Challenges<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The challenges of UNFCCC arise from the difficulty of reconciling diverse national interests, unequal historical responsibilities, development priorities and the urgency of reducing global emissions.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Implementation gap<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Countries may adopt ambitious commitments but face difficulties translating them into effective domestic policies.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Finance gap<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Developing countries continue to demand greater, predictable and accessible climate finance for mitigation and adaptation.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Historical responsibility<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Differences over historical emissions and responsibility continue to influence negotiations between developed and developing countries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Development versus decarbonisation<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Developing countries need economic growth, energy access and poverty reduction while simultaneously facing pressure to reduce emissions.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Weak enforcement<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The Paris architecture relies heavily on nationally determined commitments, transparency and peer pressure rather than a traditional enforcement mechanism.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Slow negotiations<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Consensus-based multilateral negotiations can make agreement difficult and delay ambitious decisions.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Technology barriers<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Access to affordable climate technologies, intellectual property and capacity remain concerns for developing countries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Adaptation deficit: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Climate impacts are already affecting vulnerable countries, while adaptation finance and implementation remain inadequate.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Geopolitical tensions<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Conflicts, trade disputes, energy-security concerns and differences between major powers can complicate climate negotiations.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Rising ambition requirements<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The gap between current national policies and the temperature goals of the Paris Agreement remains a fundamental challenge.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC Way Forward<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The way forward for the UNFCCC requires stronger implementation, predictable finance, technological cooperation and greater ambition while retaining equity and inclusiveness at the centre of global climate governance.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Strengthen implementation:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Countries should translate NDCs into measurable domestic policies, sectoral targets and investment programmes.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Improve climate finance<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Developed countries and international financial institutions should expand predictable, accessible and affordable finance for developing countries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Strengthen transparency<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Reliable emissions inventories, BTRs, common reporting standards and improved verification can build trust among Parties.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Accelerate technology transfer<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Greater cooperation on clean energy, storage, carbon removal, adaptation technologies and resilient infrastructure is required.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Balance mitigation and adaptation<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Global negotiations should give greater priority to adaptation and resilience, particularly for vulnerable developing countries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Preserve equity:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> CBDR-RC should remain an important principle while recognising that effective climate action ultimately requires contributions from all major emitters.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Improve carbon-market integrity<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: International carbon markets should ensure environmental integrity, additionality, transparency and avoidance of double counting.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Strengthen implementation of the Global Stocktake<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: The findings of the Global Stocktake should be translated into stronger NDCs, investment decisions and national climate policies.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Promote inclusive climate governance:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Indigenous communities, local governments, youth, women, civil society, scientists and businesses should have meaningful participation in climate action.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Maintain multilateral cooperation<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">: Despite geopolitical differences, the UNFCCC should remain the principal inclusive platform for negotiating collective responses to climate change.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">UNFCCC UPSC PYQs<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><b>Q1.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Write a review on India\u2019s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement (2015) and mention how these have been further strengthened in COP26 (2021). In this direction, how has the first Nationally Determined Contribution intended by India been updated in 2022? <\/span><b>(UPSC Mains 2025)<\/b><\/p>\r\n<p><b>Q2.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? <\/span><b>(UPSC Mains 2021)<\/b><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\r\n<p><b>Q3.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Consider the following statements: <\/span><b>(UPSC Prelims 2025)<\/b><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Statement I: At the 28th United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28), India refrained from signing the \u201cDeclaration on Climate and Health\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Statement II: The COP28 Declaration on Climate and Health is a binding declaration; and if signed, it becomes mandatory to decarbonize the health sector.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Statement III: If India\u2019s health sector is decarbonized, the resilience of its health-care system may be compromised.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">a) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">b) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct but only one of them explains Statement I<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><b>Ans: (c)<\/b><\/p>\r\n<p><b>Q4.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> \u2018Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now\u2019 is an initiative launched by: <\/span><b>(UPSC Prelims 2018)<\/b><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">a) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">b) The UNEP Secretariat<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">c) The UNFCCC Secretariat<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">d) The World Meteorological Organization<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><b>Ans: (b)<\/b><\/p>\r\n<p><b>Q5.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is\/are correct? <\/span><b>(UPSC Prelims 2016)<\/b><\/p>\r\n<ol>\r\n\t<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2 \u2018C or even 1.5 \u2018C above pre-industrial levels.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Select the correct answer using the code given below.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">a) 1 and 3 only<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">b) 2 only<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">c) 2 and 3 only<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">d) 1, 2 and 3\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><b>Ans: (b)<\/b><\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The UNFCCC stands for United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, a treaty signed by 198 countries to fight global warming and stabilise emissions. Read about history, objectives and COPs.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":35,"featured_media":30025,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[38,33],"tags":[40,2030,653],"class_list":["post-30010","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-upsc-notes","category-upsc-environment-ecology-notes","tag-quest","tag-unfccc","tag-upsc-environment-ecology-notes"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/30010","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/35"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=30010"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/30010\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":30036,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/30010\/revisions\/30036"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/30025"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=30010"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=30010"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=30010"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}