{"id":31528,"date":"2026-10-31T16:41:11","date_gmt":"2026-10-31T11:11:11","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=31528"},"modified":"2026-10-31T16:41:11","modified_gmt":"2026-10-31T11:11:11","slug":"megasthenes","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/megasthenes\/","title":{"rendered":"Megasthenes, Biography, Books, Indica, Observations in India"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><b>Megasthenes<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> was a Greek diplomat, historian, and ethnographer who visited India as an envoy of Seleucus I Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya at Pataliputra. His observations formed the basis of Indica, an important foreign account of Mauryan India.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p>He<span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> described Mauryan administration, society, economy, geography, religion, customs, and Pataliputra. Although the original Indica is lost, fragments preserved by later writers make it a valuable source for reconstructing Mauryan history, while its inaccuracies and Greek perspective require critical evaluation.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes Biography<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><b>Megasthenes <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">was a Greek ambassador and writer and one of the\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/foreign-travellers-who-visited-india\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>foreign travellers who visited India<\/strong><\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> in ancient India. He is believed to have lived during the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BCE. His diplomatic mission to the Mauryan Empire established an important connection between the Hellenistic world and ancient India.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus I Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His position enabled him to observe the political and administrative organisation of the Mauryan court and record information about its people, geography and economic activities.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">His account is an important source for historians studying ancient India, particularly the Mauryan Empire. However, since the original text is unavailable, historians must reconstruct his observations using quotations and references preserved by later writers.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes Early Life<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes was an Ionian Greek, but reliable information about his birthplace, family, and education is limited. His birth is generally placed around 350 BCE, and his death around 290 BCE.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">After Alexander the Great's death, he entered the service of Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's generals and the founder of the Seleucid Empire.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">In 302 BCE (305 BCE according to some sources), Seleucus sent Megasthenes as his ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya in India.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes as Ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes served as the envoy of Seleucus I Nicator to Chandragupta Maurya\u2019s court. His embassy belonged to the period of diplomatic engagement between the Seleucid and Mauryan kingdoms around the end of the fourth century BCE. Pataliputra was central to his description of Mauryan political life, although the exact dates, frequency, and duration of his visits remain uncertain.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes Books<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes wrote <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Indica<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, also spelt <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Indika<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, an account of India traditionally described as consisting of four books. It discussed the country\u2019s geography, inhabitants, customs, animals, and political organisation.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Indica Megasthenes<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><b>Indica book by Megasthenes<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> was an important account of Mauryan India, particularly the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. <\/span><b>Megasthenes wrote<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Indica based on his observations and information about India, although the original work has been lost.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Sources of Information:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Important references to Indica are preserved by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Arrian, and Pliny the Elder.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Scope:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The <\/span><b>Indica book<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> discussed India\u2019s rivers, soil, climate, plants, animals, agricultural production, administration, social groups, customs, and religious beliefs.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Greek Comparisons: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes and later Greek writers interpreted some Indian traditions through Greek concepts, associating Indian deities or figures with Dionysus and Herakles.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Descriptive Accounts:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Alongside useful observations, Indica included extraordinary stories about distant regions, unusual creatures and unfamiliar peoples.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Historical Value:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Despite its limitations, Indica remains an important literary source for reconstructing aspects of the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/mauryan-empire\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>Mauryan Empire<\/strong><\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> in India, particularly when compared with archaeological evidence, Ashokan inscriptions and other historical texts.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes in India<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><b>Megasthenes was the<\/b> <b>ambassador of<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Seleucus I Nicator and is associated with the court of Chandragupta Maurya at Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Areas Described: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">His account contains information about northwestern India, the Punjab and the Ganga-Yamuna region, including the imperial capital.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Nature of Observations:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Some descriptions may have been based on direct observation, while others came from local informants and accounts of regions he may not have visited personally.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Uncertain Travel History: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The precise duration of his stay and the full extent of his travels cannot be established with certainty. Therefore, every geographical description in Indica should not automatically be treated as a firsthand observation.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes Observation of India<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><b>He <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">described several aspects of Indian life, providing insights into the Mauryan state and society. His observations are especially useful when examined thematically and distinguished from claims that may reflect hearsay or Greek perceptions.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Geography and Natural Environment<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Megasthenes\u2019<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> observations of India\u2019s geography and natural environment highlighted the subcontinent\u2019s physical features, river systems, agricultural resources and diverse wildlife, alongside accounts of remarkable phenomena in distant regions.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Geographical Extent: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He presented India as a large and distinctive land, although ancient geographical descriptions did not always correspond to modern boundaries.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Rivers:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> He discussed major rivers, particularly the Indus and Ganga, and described their importance for agriculture, settlement, and transportation. Greek writers sometimes compared Indian rivers with major rivers known to them, such as the Nile and Danube.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Soil and Climate:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> He noted the fertility of Indian soil and the suitability of many regions for agricultural production.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Flora and Fauna: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">His account referred to diverse plants and animals, including elephants and monkeys, and described the training of horses and the capture of elephants. Some descriptions of distant regions included unusual animals and peoples (which need further clarification).<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Political Administration<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Megasthenes <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">portrayed the Mauryan state as an organised political system centred on the king and supported by ministers and officials.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>King:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> He described Chandragupta Maurya's luxurious lifestyle and magnificent palace.<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The king reportedly changed his sleeping room regularly and rarely appeared in public, except during military campaigns, judicial proceedings, religious sacrifices and hunting expeditions.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A large network of spies, including women, ensured his security. Megasthenes also noted Chandragupta's respect for his chief minister, Chanakya (Kautilya), who lived in a modest hut near the royal palace.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Provincial Administration:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The country was divided into provinces governed by capable officers responsible for public welfare and maintaining law and order. Provinces were further divided into districts comprising several villages. The district officer was known as the <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sthanika<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, while the village officer was called the <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gopa<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pataliputra and Municipal Administration<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes verifies archaeological findings that a great number of cities existed during his day, although Pataliputra (he refers to it as Palibothra) stood out among them. The Greek adjective Palibothra refers to a city with many gates.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Fortifications: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">According to Arrian\u2019s account of Megasthenes, the city had a wooden palisade, a deep moat, 570 towers and 64 gates.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Dimensions: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Arrian reports the city\u2019s dimensions as 80 stadia in length and 15 stadia in breadth. These are figures transmitted through ancient literature and should not be treated as independently verified modern measurements.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Municipal Administration: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes described six committees, each comprising five members, that dealt with different aspects of urban life and economic regulation.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Six Municipal Committees: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes reported that Pataliputra\u2019s civic administration was managed by six committees, each comprising five members. Each committee performed specific functions related to urban management, public welfare, and commercial regulation.<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Industrial Arts: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The first committee supervised industrial activities and crafts.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Foreigners:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The second committee looked after foreigners, including their accommodation, welfare and supervision.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Births and Deaths: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The third committee maintained records of births and deaths.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Trade and Commerce:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The fourth committee regulated trade and supervised weights and measures.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Manufactured Goods:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The fifth committee supervised the sale of manufactured goods and distinguished newly produced articles from second-hand ones.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Tax Collection:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The sixth committee collected taxes on merchandise sold in markets.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Military Organisation<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes' book Indika described the Mauryan military establishment as a large and organised institution supporting the power of the empire.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Size of the army: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He reported that the Mauryan army numbered approximately 400,000 soldiers. This figure may be exaggerated, but it reflects the Greek perception of Mauryan military strength.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Military board:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> According to his account, military administration was overseen by a board of 30 officials divided into six committees. The committees were responsible for the army, navy, cavalry, transport, chariots and elephants.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Military logistics:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> The separate attention given to transport, chariots and elephants indicates the importance attributed to logistical support and specialised military resources in the reported organisation.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Social Organisation<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Megasthenes <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">classified Indian society into seven groups, based on their occupations and social functions. This classification is valuable as evidence of how a Greek observer understood Indian society, but it does not correspond neatly to the four-varna framework or the complex system of jatis.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><b>Seven Groups: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The groups included:<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><b>Philosophers: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">People engaged in intellectual and religious pursuits.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Farmers:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Agriculturalists who cultivated land and produced food.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Herders and Hunters:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> People engaged in animal husbandry and hunting.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Artisans and Traders:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Craftspeople, manufacturers and merchants.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Soldiers:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> People who served in the military.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Overseers and Inspectors: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Officials who supervised activities and reported information.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Counsellors and Officials:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> People associated with governance and advising the ruler.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Occupational Classification: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes suggested that people generally remained within their occupational groups.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Slavery:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Megasthenes claimed slavery did not exist in India, portraying society as prosperous and free. However, according to the Arthashastra, slavery existed, and he may have mistaken slaves for willing state employees.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The term Kautilya uses for them is ahitakas.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Marriage Practices: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">His account also made claims about marriage within groups and restrictions on occupational change.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><b>Philosophical Groups: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Strabo distinguished between Brachmanes, generally identified with Brahmanas, and Garmanes, commonly associated with shramanas or other renunciant traditions.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Economic Life and Trade<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Megasthenes\u2019<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> observations provide information about agriculture, crafts, commerce, taxation, transport and the role of the state in economic activities.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Agriculture: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Farming was an important economic activity, supported by fertile soil and favourable conditions in many regions.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Crafts and Manufacturing: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Artisans and manufacturers formed a distinct occupational group in his classification.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>State Supervision: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">His account refers to the regulation of markets, weights and measures, manufactured goods and taxation. He also describes state support or arrangements for certain occupational groups, including weapons makers.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Panyadhyaksha: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes refers to the controller and manager of trade as panyadhyaksha. His duties included determining and establishing exchange rates, managing and channelling commodity surpluses, and so forth.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Trade Routes: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The account provides clues about routes connecting the north-western regions with Pataliputra and areas farther south and west, including places associated with Sahasram (Sasaram) and Mirzapur.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Trade Links: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes mentions north-south trade links, describing Pandyan territory as pearl-rich and ruled by a woman. Ashokan edicts also refer to southern dynasties outside the Mauryan Empire.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Religion and Philosophy<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes also sheds light on religious issues. He identifies Shiva as Dionysus. Megasthenes also mentions Herakles' worship in the Mathura region. Historians identify this character as the versatile Krishna who rose to prominence in the Puranic faith after the Gupta period.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Brahmanas and Shramanas: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Strabo\u2019s account of Megasthenes distinguishes Brachmanes (Brahmanas) and Garmanes (commonly associated with shramanas), indicating different groups of Indian religious thinkers.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Dionysus and Herakles: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes\u2019 account, as preserved by later Greek writers, associated aspects of Indian history and traditions with these Greek figures.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Customs and Extraordinary Accounts<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The surviving accounts attributed to <\/span><b>Megasthenes<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> also describe certain customs and unusual stories. These should be distinguished from observations supported by independent historical evidence.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Royal Activities: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Later accounts associated with Megasthenes describe royal hunting and the participation of women in some hunting activities.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Unusual Creatures and Peoples: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The transmitted accounts include gold-digging ants, enormous snakes, one-horned horses, people said to have backwards-facing feet or eight toes, and dog-headed peoples.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>The Silas River: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">One report describes a river called the Silas in which objects supposedly could not float.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Historical Interpretation: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Such descriptions illustrate the mixture of geographical information, hearsay and fabulous traditions found in ancient ethnographic writing. They should not be presented as established facts.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes\u2019 Account Limitations<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Although Indica is an important source for Mauryan history, its reliability must be assessed critically. The limitations arise from the loss of the original work, the perspective of a foreign observer, and the nature of the material preserved by later writers.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Fragmentary Evidence: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The original Indica has not survived. Its contents are known through later writers, who selected and reproduced passages for their own purposes.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Limited Firsthand Knowledge: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Megasthenes\u2019 precise travel history is uncertain. Some information may have come from informants rather than personal observation.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Greek Cultural Bias:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> His descriptions sometimes interpreted Indian institutions and religious traditions through Greek categories, potentially simplifying or misrepresenting local practices.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Extraordinary Claims: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Accounts of unusual creatures, peoples and natural phenomena cannot be accepted without independent corroboration.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Generalisation about Society: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">His classification of society into seven groups does not adequately represent the complexity of Indian social organisation.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Questionable Social Claims: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Reports that India had no slavery, that theft was rare, that people did not lie or lend and borrow, and that farmers were left undisturbed during wars should not be accepted uncritically. Some of these claims require comparison with other textual and historical evidence, including the Arthashastra.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Critical Reception: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Strabo criticised aspects of the accounts of Megasthenes and other ancient writers on India, while Arrian also expressed reservations about some extraordinary reports.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Megasthenes was a Greek diplomat and the ambassador of Seleucus I Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. Read about Megasthenes, Biography, Books, Indica.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":22,"featured_media":31606,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[38,18],"tags":[2175,40,1085],"class_list":["post-31528","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-upsc-notes","category-upsc-ancient-history-notes","tag-megasthenes","tag-quest","tag-upsc-ancient-history-notes"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/31528","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/22"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=31528"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/31528\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":31555,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/31528\/revisions\/31555"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/31606"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=31528"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=31528"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=31528"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}