{"id":31733,"date":"2026-11-04T18:28:07","date_gmt":"2026-11-04T12:58:07","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=31733"},"modified":"2026-11-04T18:28:07","modified_gmt":"2026-11-04T12:58:07","slug":"abdur-razzaq","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/abdur-razzaq\/","title":{"rendered":"Abdur Razzaq (1413-82), Early Life, Visit to India, UPSC Notes"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><b>Abdur Razzaq <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">was a 15th-century Persian scholar, diplomat and traveller from Herat who visited India between 1442 and 1445 CE during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II. Sent by the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh as an official envoy, he first visited the Zamorin's court at Calicut and subsequently travelled to Vijayanagara.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">His account, Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain, provides valuable firsthand observations of 15th-century South India, particularly Vijayanagara's political and military strength, territorial extent, urban planning, fortifications, commercial prosperity, social customs and royal ceremonies. It is an important foreign source for reconstructing the history of medieval South India.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Abdur Razzaq Personal Life<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(Kamaluddin Abdul Razzaq Samarqandi, 1413-1482) was a Persian scholar, historian, Timurid diplomat, and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/foreign-travellers-who-visited-india\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>foreign traveller who visited India<\/strong><\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II (1426\u20131446). He was sent by the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh (1405\u20131447) on a diplomatic mission to Calicut and subsequently visited Vijayanagara.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Early Life: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He was born in Herat on 7 November 1413; his father, Jalaluddin Ishaq, served as a Qazi and Imam at Shah Rukh's court. Following his father's death in 1437, Razzaq was appointed Qazi of the royal court and camp.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Historical Work: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He recorded his Indian mission in Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain, a Persian historical chronicle covering political developments and events of his period. His account of India forms an important part of this work.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Nature of Account:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> His description is primarily a travelogue based largely on personal observations. He provides valuable information about the political, economic, social and cultural conditions of 15th-century South India.<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He was an astute observer of the societies and cultures of the places he visited. While he does not appear to have been impressed with Calicut's inhabitants, he does provide a vivid depiction of the splendor of Vijayanagara's capital city (modern Hampi).<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Abdur Razzaq Visit to India<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> undertook his Indian diplomatic mission between 1442 and 1444, with his return journey extending into early 1445. His visit covered the important commercial centre of Calicut and the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/vijayanagara-empire\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>Vijayanagara Empire<\/strong><\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> capital, providing an account of two significant centres of South Indian political and economic life.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Departure:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Shah Rukh sent Razzaq to the court of the Zamorin of Calicut in January 1442.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Sea Voyage: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Travelling overland through Kohistan and Kerman, he reached the important port of Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. From there, he travelled by sea towards India but had to stop at Muscat due to unfavourable monsoon conditions. He finally reached Calicut (Kozhikode) in November 1442 and met the Zamorin, its ruler.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Visit to Vijayanagara: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Later, at the request of the Vijayanagara ruler, he travelled via Mangalore to Vijayanagara, reaching there in April 1443. He stayed in the kingdom until December 1443 and observed its wealth, administration, markets and grand festivals.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Return journey: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He left Vijayanagara in December 1443 and eventually returned towards Hormuz, reaching the end of his Indian mission in early 1445.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Abdur Razzaq Account of India<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq's <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">account provides a valuable foreign perspective on the Vijayanagara Empire under Deva Raya II and the wider commercial and cultural environment of South India. His observations are particularly significant for reconstructing the empire's political authority, urban planning, maritime trade, social customs and royal ceremonies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Political and Diplomatic Relations<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq's<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> account provides insights into Vijayanagara's political relations with neighbouring kingdoms, internal royal conflicts and military engagements during Deva Raya II's reign.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Royal conflicts: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He recorded an attempted assassination of Deva Raya II by his brother, although the later traveller Fernao Nuniz identified the attacker as his nephew.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Bengal-Jaunpur relations: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He described Deva Raya II's intervention in Bengal's political affairs, including a warning to the Bengal ruler against interfering in Jaunpur's affairs, following which the ruler reportedly withdrew.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Bahmani conflict:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> He narrated a Bahmani attack on Vijayanagara, which was reportedly repulsed by Deva Raya II and followed by the occupation of Raichur and Mudgal.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Territorial Extent and Military Organisation<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">highlighted the extensive territorial reach and military strength of Vijayanagara, particularly through his observations on its geographical boundaries, maritime resources and defensive arrangements.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Territorial Extent: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He described Deva Raya II's dominion as extending from Gulbarga to Sri Lanka and from Bengal to Malabar, indicating the vast territorial reach attributed to the empire.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Maritime Strength: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He mentioned approximately 300 harbours in the Vijayanagara kingdom, highlighting its maritime importance and commercial connections.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Defensive Arrangements: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He described seven citadels and seven successive walls surrounding the capital, which were primarily intended to protect the city against external invasions.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Urban Planning and Architecture<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">provided a detailed description of Vijayanagara's capital, highlighting its systematic urban organisation, elaborate fortifications and arrangements for water supply. He described Vijayanagara as an extraordinary city, stating, \"The pupil of the eye has never seen a place like it.\"<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Fortified Zones: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He observed that the outer fortified areas contained cultivated fields, gardens and orchards, while the inner zones accommodated bazaars, residential buildings and royal palaces.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Defensive Architecture:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> He noted the presence of hilltop fortifications and watchtowers throughout the city, reflecting its elaborate defence arrangements.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Water Management: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He identified the Tungabhadra River as the principal source of water for the capital, highlighting its importance in sustaining the urban population.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Trade and Commercial Prosperity<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq's<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> observations highlight the flourishing maritime commerce of South India and the prosperity of Vijayanagara's markets and trading centres.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Maritime Trade: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He praised the flourishing Indian Ocean trade and shipping activities and highlighted India's important position in overseas commerce.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Calicut Port: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He described Calicut as a safe harbour where merchants could unload their goods and leave them in the markets without fear of theft.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Customs Duties: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He observed that customs duties were imposed uniformly on merchants, irrespective of their nationalities.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Commercial Markets:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> He described the bazaars of Vijayanagara as extensive and well organised, with specialised stalls for different crafts. Flower sellers operated from elevated platforms, while jewellers openly sold pearls, diamonds, rubies and emeralds.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Administration and Economic Practices<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">recorded several aspects of Vijayanagara's economic and administrative arrangements, including its monetary practices, royal establishments and revenue collection.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Coinage: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He recorded the existence of a royal mint and the practice of free coinage in the Vijayanagara kingdom.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Writing Methods: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He mentioned the use of two different writing methods in the empire, although his account does not individually identify them.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Elephant Establishments: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He described royal elephant establishments where elephants were bred and recorded the methods used for capturing them.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Taxation: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He observed that prostitutes lived in specially designated quarters and that the state collected taxes from them.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Society and Religious Practices<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq's<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> observations provide insights into the religious diversity, social customs and material prosperity of the people of Calicut and Vijayanagara.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Muslim Community: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He observed a sizeable Muslim population and the presence of two mosques in Calicut, indicating an established Muslim community.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Islamic Jurisprudence: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He noted that Muslims in Calicut predominantly followed the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence, unlike the Hanafi school prevalent in much of northern India.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Religious Customs: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He recorded the veneration of cows and reported that the death penalty was imposed for killing a cow.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Social Practices: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He commented critically on the local population's dress practices and the prevalence of polyandry, reflecting his cultural perceptions as a foreign visitor.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Material Prosperity: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He noted that nobles, commoners, and even artisans wore pearls and precious stones on their ears, necks, arms, wrists, and fingers.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Culture and Royal Ceremonies<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p><b>Abdur Razzaq <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">documented the cultural life of the Vijayanagara court, particularly its grand royal celebrations, performing arts, and everyday customs.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Mahanavami Festival: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He provided a detailed description of the Mahanavami celebrations, including royal processions and the assembly of military commanders from different parts of the empire.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Performing Arts: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">He recorded the participation of singers, dancers, and other performers in the celebrations and observed that many dancers were young women.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Betel Practices:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> He described the customs associated with offering and consuming betel leaves and recorded the perceived benefits of their consumption.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Abdul Razzaq Account Limitations<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Although<\/span><b> Abdur Razzaq's<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> account is an important contemporary source, it must be interpreted critically because it combines personal observations, information received from others, and cultural judgements. His descriptions are particularly valuable for understanding Vijayanagara, but they do not provide a completely comprehensive or neutral picture of Indian society.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Cultural Bias:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> His criticism of Calicut's inhabitants, particularly their dress practices and polyandry, reflects his own Persian and Islamic cultural background.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Selective Observations:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> Although he provides extensive details about Vijayanagara's capital and royal court, his account gives relatively limited information about ordinary rural life and the internal functioning of village administration.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Eyewitness Limitations: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">While much of his narrative is based on personal observation, some political and social information may have been obtained from other people and cannot automatically be treated as independently verified.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Exaggeration and Generalisation:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> His descriptions of the empire's territorial extent, approximately 300 harbours, and extraordinary wealth should be interpreted in the context of a travel narrative written for a Persian audience.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><b>Outsider's Perspective: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">His comparisons with Persia and emphasis on royal grandeur provide an external perspective but may not fully explain indigenous institutions, social hierarchies and local traditions.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Abdur Razzaq visited India during the rule of Deva Raya II of the Vijayanagara Empire during the 1440s. Check out Abdur Razzaq, Early Life, Visit to India, Accounts,<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":22,"featured_media":31741,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[38,18],"tags":[2195,40,1085],"class_list":["post-31733","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-upsc-notes","category-upsc-ancient-history-notes","tag-abdur-razzaq","tag-quest","tag-upsc-ancient-history-notes"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/31733","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/22"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=31733"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/31733\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":31739,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/31733\/revisions\/31739"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/31741"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=31733"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=31733"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=31733"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}