{"id":3517,"date":"2026-01-02T14:39:16","date_gmt":"2026-01-02T09:09:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=3517"},"modified":"2026-01-03T16:09:08","modified_gmt":"2026-01-03T10:39:08","slug":"imperial-cholas","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/imperial-cholas\/","title":{"rendered":"Imperial Cholas, UPSC Prelims 2025"},"content":{"rendered":"<h2><strong>Emergence of Imperial Cholas<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p>The Cholas belonged to one of the three mighty dynasties that ruled the Tamil country in the early\u00a0<strong><u>Sangam period<\/u><\/strong><strong>.<\/strong>\u00a0Described as the\u00a0<strong>Muvendhar\u00a0<\/strong>in the Sangam literature, they were known for their valour and patronage of the Tamil language.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>They\u00a0<strong>became prominent in the ninth century<\/strong>\u00a0and established an empire comprising a significant portion of\u00a0<strong>South India.\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>They also extended their sway in\u00a0<strong>Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula.\u00a0<\/strong>Therefore, they are called the Imperial Cholas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh6.googleusercontent.com\/-A_0H2SHgnb2f3Sux9HGD2ncJKf9Gblrlu-9TWuB6-ZVd1ogrS6tXkIJRdTCp-gJ0gR5GRVK5YuYAQtWIk4C74Saj6017ITwgWZrlEbcgNnP0ns0OdfjeitwfbPWypLz1EMKKdZLYr13j5x-kziv1w\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p><strong>Map: Chola Empire<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<h2><strong>Chola - Rulers and their Contributions<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" colspan=\"3\"><strong>Chola - Rulers and their Contributions<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">Period:\u00a0<strong>850 \u2013 1279 AD<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>Capital:\u00a0<strong>Tanjore (Thanjavur)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td colspan=\"3\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Cholas remained subordinate to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region after the Sangam period.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>They re-emerged with Vijayalaya (850\u2013871 CE), conquering the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Sources:<\/strong>\u00a0Inscriptions engraved on copper and stone form the primary sources for studying Chola history.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Vijayalaya (847 \u2013 871 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Founder of Chola Empire:\u00a0<\/strong>He captured Tanjore from\u00a0<strong>Muttaraiyars\u00a0<\/strong>in 815 A.D. and built a temple of Durga.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>He built the<strong>\u00a0city of Thanjavur<\/strong>\u00a0and established the\u00a0<strong>Chola kingdom<\/strong>\u00a0of the imperial line in 850.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Sources: Kanyakumari inscription<\/strong>\u00a0mentions the renovation of the city of Tanjore by Vijayala.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Aditya (871 \u2013 907 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Military conquests:\u00a0<\/strong>He ended the Pallava kingdom by defeating\u00a0<strong>Aparajita\u00a0<\/strong>and annexing\u00a0<strong>Tondaimandalam.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>He maintained cordial relations with Cheras.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td rowspan=\"3\"><strong>Parantaka \u2160 (907 \u2013 955 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Title and Sources:<\/strong>\u00a0He assumed the \u201c<strong>Madurain-konda\u201d\u00a0<\/strong>after capturing Pandya capital Madurai.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong><u>Uthiramerur inscriptions<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0belong to his reign, which gives a detailed account of the<strong>\u00a0village administration<\/strong>\u00a0under the Cholas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Military conflicts:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Battle of Vellore<\/strong>: He defeated the Pandya ruler\u00a0<strong>Rajasimha II<\/strong>\u00a0and the Kassapa V of Ceylon in the Battle of Vellore.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Battle of Vallala:\u00a0<\/strong>He defeated\u00a0<strong>Rashtrakuta\u00a0<\/strong>ruler\u00a0<strong>Krishna II\u00a0<\/strong>in Deccan in the Battle of Vallala.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Battle of Takkolam:\u00a0<\/strong>He was defeated by Rashtrakutas in 1948, and his eldest son\u00a0<strong>Rajaditya\u00a0<\/strong>was killed in the battle.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>He maintained friendly relations with\u00a0<strong>Cheras (Perumals)\u00a0<\/strong>and married Chera's princess.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Period of rapid ascension (955 - 987 AD):<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>From the death of Parantaka I to the ascension of Rajaraja I, this period of thirty years was marked by the\u00a0<strong>rapid ascension to the Chola throne.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Rulers after Parantaka I:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Gandaraditya Chola (955 \u2013 956 AD):\u00a0<\/strong>Second son of Parantaka<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Arinjaya Chola (957- 958 AD):\u00a0<\/strong>Younger brother of Gandaraditya<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Parantaka II Chola (958 \u2013 973 AD):\u00a0<\/strong>He was son of Arijinya. He defeated the Pandyas and Ceylon and then recaptured the Tondaimandalam from Rashtrakutas.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Uttama Chola (973 \u2013 985 AD):\u00a0<\/strong>He was the son of Gandaraditya, who ascended the throne after the assassination of Aditya II (son of Parantaka II).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td rowspan=\"4\"><strong>Rajaraja I (985 \u2013 1014 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"4\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Succession:\u00a0<\/strong>Rajaraja I is the most celebrated of the Chola kings. He was the\u00a0<strong>son of Parantaka II\u00a0<\/strong>and ascended the Chola throne in 985 AD.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Religion:<\/strong>\u00a0He was a devout follower of\u00a0<strong>Saivism<\/strong>\u00a0but tolerant towards other faiths.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Titles: Kandalur salai kalamarutt<\/strong>a, Jayankonda, Sivapadasekara,\u00a0<strong>Mummudi-Chola<\/strong>\u00a0(the Chola king who wears three crowns - the Chera, Chola and Pandya),\u00a0<strong>Pandya Kulashani<\/strong>\u00a0(Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas).<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>His military conquests were:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Against Cheras:\u00a0<\/strong>He defeated the Chera ruler\u00a0<strong>Bhaskararavivarman\u00a0<\/strong>in the naval battle of Kandalursalai in 994 AD.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Against Pandyas:<\/strong>\u00a0He defeated the Pandya ruler,\u00a0<strong>Amarabhujanga\u00a0<\/strong>and established the Chola authority in the Pandya country.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Against Ganga:\u00a0<\/strong>He conquered the Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi in the Mysore region.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Western Chalukya<\/strong><strong>\u00a0wars:\u00a0<\/strong>He defeated Chalukya ruler\u00a0<strong>Satyasraya\u00a0<\/strong>and captured the Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>The invasion of Sri Lanka:\u00a0<\/strong>He annexed\u00a0<strong>northern Sri Lanka<\/strong>\u00a0from Sri Lankan king\u00a0<strong>Mahinda V<\/strong>. The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>War against Telugu Chodas:\u00a0<\/strong>He restored the Vengi throne to its rulers\u00a0<strong>Saktivarman and Vimaladitya<\/strong>\u00a0by defeating the Telugu Chodas. Rajaraja gave his daughter\u00a0<strong>Kundavai\u00a0<\/strong>in marriage to Vimaladitya.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Naval conquests:\u00a0<\/strong>Rajaraja\u2019s last military achievement was a naval expedition\u00a0<strong>against the Maldive Islands<\/strong>\u00a0which were conquered.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td rowspan=\"3\"><strong>Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Succession:\u00a0<\/strong>Rajendra I was the<strong>\u00a0co-regent<\/strong>\u00a0during the reign of Rajaraja I. He ascended to the\u00a0<strong>throne in 1012 AD.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Religion:\u00a0<\/strong>He was a devout<strong>\u00a0follower of Siva.<\/strong>\u00a0But he was also tolerant towards the\u00a0<strong>Vaishnava\u00a0<\/strong>and\u00a0<strong>Buddhist\u00a0<\/strong>sects.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Matrimonial relations:<\/strong>\u00a0He gave his daughter\u00a0<strong>Ammangadevi\u00a0<\/strong>to the Vengi Chalukya prince and further continued the matrimonial alliance initiated by Rajaraja I.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Policy of aggression:\u00a0<\/strong>He continued his father\u2019s policy of aggressive conquests and expansion.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Titles:\u00a0<\/strong>Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan and Pandita Cholan<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>His important conquests were: <\/strong>He<strong> <span style=\"font-weight: 400\">led a successful 16 military campaign against the kingdom of Srivijaya, the powerful maritime State, which ruled the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands.<\/span><\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Conquest of Sri Lanka:\u00a0<\/strong>Rajendra defeated Ceylon king\u00a0<strong>Mahinda V<\/strong>\u00a0and seized\u00a0<strong>southern Sri Lanka.\u00a0<\/strong>Thus the whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Against Western Chalukyas:\u00a0<\/strong>He defeated<strong>\u00a0Jayasimha II,<\/strong>\u00a0the Western Chalukya king and the<strong>\u00a0river Tungabadhra<\/strong>\u00a0was recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Vengi expedition:\u00a0<\/strong>He restored the throne of Vengi to King\u00a0<strong>Rajaraja Narendra<\/strong>\u00a0by defeating\u00a0<strong>Vijayaditya.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Expedition to North India:\u00a0<\/strong>Rajendra defeated\u00a0<strong>Mahipala I of Bengal.\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Naval expedition:\u00a0<\/strong>Rajendra\u2019s naval expedition to\u00a0<strong>Kadaram or SriVijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.<\/strong>\u00a0He assumed the title\u00a0<strong>Kadaramkondan\u00a0<\/strong>after its success.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Contribution to architecture<\/strong>: To commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign Rajendra founded the\u00a0<strong>city of Gangaikondacholapuram<\/strong>\u00a0and constructed the famous\u00a0<strong><u>Rajesvaram temple<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0in that city.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>He also excavated a large irrigation tank called\u00a0<strong>Cholagangam\u00a0<\/strong>on the western side of the city.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Rajadhiraja (1044 \u2013 1052 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Succession:\u00a0<\/strong>Rajadhiraja was the son of Rajendra I and ascended to the throne in 1044.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Titles:\u00a0<\/strong>Jayamkonda Solan (The Victorious Cholan), Kalyanapuramkonda, Vijaya Rajendra Cholan.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>War against Chalukyas:\u00a0<\/strong>He lost his life at the\u00a0<strong>battle of Koppam<\/strong>\u00a0against the\u00a0<strong>western Chalukyan King Someshwar.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>He was known as\u00a0<strong>Yanai-mel-thunjina Deva<\/strong>r (the king who died on an elephant).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Rajendra II (1052 - 1063 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Succession:<\/strong>\u00a0He was the younger\u00a0<strong>brother of Rajadhiraja<\/strong>\u00a0and ascended the throne after the death of Rajadhiraja in the battle of Koppam in 1052. He\u00a0<strong>led the Battle of Koppam<\/strong>\u00a0afterwards.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Military achievements:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>He defeated the western Chalukyan king\u00a0<strong>Someshwar\u00a0<\/strong>in the\u00a0<strong>Battle of Kundal-Sangamam<\/strong>\u00a0in 1062.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>He undertook expeditions to the Kalinga Kingdom (Kalinga King\u00a0<strong>Vira Salamegha<\/strong>) and Sri Lanka (Vijayabahu I).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Contribution to architecture:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ulagalantha Perumal<\/strong>\u00a0Temple (Tamilnadu) and\u00a0<strong>Veetrirundha Perumal Temple<\/strong>\u00a0were expanded during his reign. The new shrine from fine\u00a0<strong>black granite<\/strong>\u00a0was constructed in Ulagalantha Perumal Temple.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Rajendra granted the town of\u00a0<strong>Ulakkaiyur\u00a0<\/strong>gold to build the<strong><u>Agastheeswar Temple<\/u><\/strong>, which was dedicated to Shiva.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Virarajendra Chola (1063 - 1067 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<p><strong>Military conquests:\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>He\u00a0<strong>occupied Vengi\u00a0<\/strong>after defeating Someshwar I and Vikramaditya VI (son of Someshwara I) of Western Chalukyas.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>He defeated\u00a0<strong>Someshwar II\u00a0<\/strong>(son of Someshwara I).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>He led\u00a0<strong>expeditions against Sri Lanka<\/strong>\u00a0(King Vijaybahu) and Kadaram (on behalf of a king).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Kulottunga I (1070 - 1122 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Succession:<\/strong>\u00a0Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangadevi. He succeeded the Chola throne after the Athirajendra Chola.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Military achievements:\u00a0<\/strong>He united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>He defeated Kalinga king\u00a0<strong>Anantavarman Chodaganga.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Contemporaries:<\/strong>\u00a0Kamban and Jayakonda were the scholars in his court.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Foreign relations:\u00a0<\/strong>Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Later rulers<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Rulers after Kulothunga I were\u00a0<strong>weak\u00a0<\/strong>and could not maintain the Chola empire.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Rajendra III<\/strong>\u00a0was the last Chola king who Pandya King Jatavarman Sundarapandya II defeated.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h2><strong>Administration<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" colspan=\"2\"><strong>Administration\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Central Government<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Hereditary monarchial power:<\/strong>\u00a0The emperor or king was at the head of the administration. The council of ministers assisted him.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Perundanam and sirudanam:<\/strong>\u00a0They were the administrative machinery comprising various officials.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Cholas appointed Brahmins as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Chola kings followed the practice of\u00a0<strong>adding the suffix deva<\/strong>\u00a0to the name of the crowned kings at the time of the coronation.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>They provided extensive grants to the temples to reveal the king's authority.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Provincial Administration<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Feudatory system:\u00a0<\/strong>Chola ruler followed the system of\u00a0<strong>feudatories\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Division of the Chola Empire:<\/strong>\u00a0Empire into\u00a0<strong>mandalams\u00a0<\/strong>(under royal princes or officers) \u2192 mandalam into\u00a0<strong>valanadus\u00a0<\/strong>\u00a0(under\u00a0<strong>periyanattar<\/strong>)\u2192 valanadus into\u00a0<strong>nadus\u00a0<\/strong>(under\u00a0<strong>nattar<\/strong>).\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>In each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Town:\u00a0<\/strong>The town was known as\u00a0<strong>nagaram,\u00a0<\/strong>and it was under the administration of a council called\u00a0<strong>nagarattar<\/strong>.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Naattukanakku and nattuviyavan:<\/strong>\u00a0They were the functionaries for recording the proceedings of the\u00a0<strong>Nattar<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Village Assemblies\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Village autonomy:\u00a0<\/strong>The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Sources: Uttarmerur inscription\u00a0<\/strong>provides details of the formation and functions of village councils.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ur:\u00a0<\/strong>It was a general assembly of the village<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Urar:\u00a0<\/strong>They were the landholders in the village entrusted with the upkeep of temples and maintenance of the tanks.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Agraharams:<\/strong>\u00a0It was the gathering of adult men in Brahmin villages.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Village council:\u00a0<\/strong>Each village was divided into thirty wards, and each was to nominate its members to the village council.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>The qualifications to become a ward member were:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Ownership of at least one-fourth veli of the land.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>own residence.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Knowledge of Vedas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>However, certain norms of disqualification were also mentioned in the inscriptions. They were:\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Had been members of the commitee for the past three years.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>failed to submit accounts as committee members.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Committed sins<\/li>\r\n\t<li>stolen the property of others.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Kudavolai system<\/strong>\u00a0was the system of nominating the persons for each ward for a year.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Division of wards into six variyams:<\/strong>\u00a0samvatsaravariyam, erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon variyam and puravuvari variyam.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Variyapperumakkal:<\/strong>\u00a0They were the committee members who usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Military Administration<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Military composition:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Cavalry:\u00a0<strong>kudirai sevagar<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>Elephant corps:\u00a0<strong>anaiyatka<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>Bowmen:\u00a0<strong>villaligal<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>Sword-bearers:\u00a0<strong>valilar<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>Spearmen:\u00a0<strong>konduvar<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Other terms related to military administration<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Nilaipadai:\u00a0<\/strong>Military outposts in the conquered territory.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Nayagam: T<\/strong>he captain of a regiment, and later he assumed the title of\u00a0<strong>padaimudali<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Senapati and dandanayagam:\u00a0<\/strong>The commanderin- chief.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Kaikkolaperumdai<\/strong>: Royal troops.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Velaikkarar<\/strong>: A personal troop to defend the king.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Kadagams and padaividu<\/strong>: Army and military cantonments.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h2><strong>Economy<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" colspan=\"2\"><strong>Economy\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Agriculture<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Expansion of agriculture:<\/strong>\u00a0It was the period of the\u00a0<strong>expansion of agriculture<\/strong>\u00a0that led to the production of food grain surplus.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Valangai:<\/strong>\u00a0Group of agricultural castes.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Kudi neekki:\u00a0<\/strong>The local peasants<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Revenue<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Revenue collection:\u00a0<\/strong>They undertook extensive land surveys and revenue settlements. Cholas did the collection of land tax out of the agrarian surplus for its revenue.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>The tax rates were\u00a0<strong>fixed\u00a0<\/strong>depending on the soil's fertility and the landholder's status.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Exemption:\u00a0<\/strong>Temples and Brahmins were\u00a0<strong>exempted\u00a0<\/strong>from paying taxes.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Various taxes:<\/strong>\u00a0Irai, kanikadan, iraikattina-kanikadan and kadami.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Kudimai:<\/strong>\u00a0A tax paid by the cultivating tenants to the government and the landlords, the bearers of honorific titles such as udaiyan, araiyan and kilavar.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Opati:\u00a0<\/strong>It was levied and collected by the king and local chiefs.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Iraikattina-nellu:\u00a0<\/strong>tax paid in kind.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Related terms:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Puravuvari-tinaikkalam:<\/strong>\u00a0Department of land revenue (chief -\u00a0<strong>puravuvari-tinaikkalanayagam<\/strong>).<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Naduvagaiseykira:\u00a0<\/strong>The surveyors of the land, who were from the landholding communities.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Units of the land measurement:<\/strong>\u00a0kuli, ma, veli, patti, padagam, etc.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>kalam:\u00a0<\/strong>Unit for collecting paddy as a tax (28 kg).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Irrigation<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Measures:<\/strong>\u00a0Cholas undertook measures to improve the irrigation system that was in practice.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>They practiced the\u00a0<strong>turn system\u00a0<\/strong>for distributing the water.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Vativaykkal:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>It was a\u00a0<strong>criss-cross<\/strong>\u00a0channel, a traditional way of harnessing rainwater in the Kavery delta.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Vati is a\u00a0<strong>drainage channel\u00a0<\/strong>(in the north-south direction), and a\u00a0<strong>vaykkal\u00a0<\/strong>is a supply channel (in the east-west direction).\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Uttamacholavaykkal, Panca-vanamadevi-vaykkal and Ganavathy-vaykkal:\u00a0<\/strong>Canals named after kings, queens and gods.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ur-vaykkal:<\/strong>\u00a0Canal owned jointly by the landowners.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Nattu-vaykkal:<\/strong>\u00a0Nadu level canals.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Irrigation tanks:\u00a0<\/strong>Cholavaridhi, Kaliyaneri, Vairamegatataka and Rajendra Cholaperiyaeri.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ainutruvapperari<\/strong>\u00a0was an irrigation tank constructed by\u00a0<strong>Valanciyar<\/strong>, a group of traders in\u00a0<strong>Pudukottai<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Water Management<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Water rights:\u00a0<\/strong>They had a system of assigning different kinds of\u00a0<strong>water rights.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Land transactions in the form of donations and endowments were\u00a0<strong>also accompanied by water rights<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Practice of free labour:\u00a0<\/strong>The practice of<strong>\u00a0free labour\u00a0<\/strong>for the periodic and seasonal maintenance of the irrigation tanks was prevalent.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Vetti and Amanji:<\/strong>\u00a0Forms of free labour related to public works at the village level.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Related terms:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Nirkkiintavaru:\u00a0<\/strong>It relates to the allotment of water.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Kumizh and talaivay:<\/strong>\u00a0Channels and gateways for releasing the water.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Talaivayar, Talaivay-chanrar and Eri-araiyarkal:\u00a0<\/strong>They were the groups responsible for releasing the water through the head channel and sluice from the rivers or tanks.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Kulattar:<\/strong>\u00a0They are a group of people in charge of kulam.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ernakulam:<\/strong>\u00a0Commonly owned village tank (our tank).<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Eriayam:\u00a0<\/strong>A tax collected by village assemblies, which was utilised for repairing irrigation tanks.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Artisanal activities<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Development of weaving industry:<\/strong>\u00a0The weaving industry, particularly the\u00a0<strong>silk weaving at Kanchi,<\/strong>\u00a0flourished.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Idangai:\u00a0<\/strong>Artisanal and trading caste groupings.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The metal works developed owing to the\u00a0<strong>great demand for images for temples and utensils.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Trade<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Increased trade:\u00a0<\/strong>Increased production in agriculture and artisanal activities led to the growth in trade.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Terms related to traders:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Garveras and Gaudas\/ Gavundas:<\/strong>\u00a0Trading castes.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Anjuvannattar:<\/strong>\u00a0They were maritime traders comprising West Asians, including Jews, Christians and Muslims, who settled along the port towns of the West coast.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Manigramattar:<\/strong>\u00a0They were traders in the hinterland and settled in interior towns like Kodumbalur, Uraiyur, Kovilpatti, Piranmalai and others.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ainutruvar, disai-ayirattu-ainutruvar and valanciyar:\u00a0<\/strong>Common banner for Anjuvannattar and Manigramattar after both merged.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Maritime trade centres:\u00a0<\/strong>Munai-santai (Pudukkottai), Mylapore and Tiruvotriyur (Chennai), Nagapattinam, Vishakapattinam and Krishnapattinam (south Nellore).\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Peruvazhis:\u00a0<\/strong>Trunk roads.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Items of export:<\/strong>\u00a0Sandalwood, ebony, condiments, precious gems, pepper, oil, paddy, grains and salt.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Items of import:\u00a0<\/strong>Camphor, copper, tin, mercury, etc.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h2><strong>Society and Religion<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<h3><strong>Society:\u00a0<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Social structure:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Prevalence of Varnashrama system:<\/strong>\u00a0Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sutras.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Valangai and Idangai castes\u00a0<\/strong>were two major divisions among the castes.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Landholding was the\u00a0<strong>prime determinant of social status<\/strong>\u00a0and hierarchy.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Hierarchy according to landownership:<\/strong>\u00a0Brahmadeya-kilavars &gt; landholders of vellanvagai villages &gt; Ulukudi<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Brahmadeya-kilavars:\u00a0<\/strong>They were the Brahmin landholders at the top brahmadeya settlements with tax exemption, displacing the local peasants.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ulukudi:<\/strong>\u00a0They were the tenants who could not own land but had to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and holders of vellanvagai villages.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Melvaram:\u00a0<\/strong>significant share in harvest retained by landholders and<strong>\u00a0kizh varam:\u00a0<\/strong>lower share of harvest retained by Ulukudi.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Labourers (paniceymakkal) and slaves (adimaigal)\u00a0<\/strong>stayed at the bottom of the social hierarchy.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Women:\u00a0<\/strong>There was no improvement in the position of women.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>The\u00a0<strong>practice of \u2018sat<\/strong>i\u2019 was prevalent among the royal families.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The\u00a0<strong>devadasi system,<\/strong>\u00a0or dancing girls attached to temples, emerged during this period.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><strong>Religion:<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ardent followers of Shaivism:\u00a0<\/strong>The iconic form of Siva was Lingodhbhava, and the\u00a0<strong>Nataraja idol<\/strong>\u00a0was the human form.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Flourishment of Saivism and Vaishnavism:\u00a0<\/strong>Many popular saints called\u00a0<strong><u>Nayannars<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>Alvars<\/strong>, who were devotees of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, respectively, flourished during this period.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Parantaka I and Uttama Chola (907\u2013970)<\/strong> made provisions and gifted the lands to promote religion.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Imperial Cholas UPSC PYQs<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"><strong>Q1:<\/strong> Who among the following led a successful 16 military campaign against the kingdom of Srivijaya, the powerful maritime State, which ruled the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands? <strong>(UPSC Prelims 2025)<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">a) Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta)<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">b) Prataparudra (Kakatiya)<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">c) Rajendra I (Chola)<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">d) Vishnuvardhana (Hoysala)<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p><strong>Ans: (c)<\/strong><\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Imperial Cholas rose to prominence establishing a vast empire in South India, Sri Lanka &#038; Malay Peninsula.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":19931,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[173],"tags":[673,40],"class_list":{"0":"post-3517","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-quest-level-3","8":"tag-imperial-cholas","9":"tag-quest"},"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3517","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/6"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3517"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3517\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":20050,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3517\/revisions\/20050"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/19931"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3517"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3517"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3517"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}