{"id":3538,"date":"2026-01-05T09:52:42","date_gmt":"2026-01-05T04:22:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=3538"},"modified":"2026-01-06T12:38:56","modified_gmt":"2026-01-06T07:08:56","slug":"kingdoms-administration-society-economy-of-the-sangam-age","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/kingdoms-administration-society-economy-of-the-sangam-age\/","title":{"rendered":"Kingdoms, Administration, Society & Economy of the Sangam Age"},"content":{"rendered":"

What is the Sangam Age?<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n

The Sangam Age, also known as the\u00a0Tamil Sangam period<\/strong>, was a significant era in the history of South India. This period is named after the Sangam, which was a gathering of Tamil poets and scholars who lived in the southern part of India. The Sangam period is generally believed to have lasted from\u00a0300 BCE to 300 CE.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

Sangam Assemblies<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n

According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu, popularly called\u00a0Muchchangam (three Sangams)<\/strong>. All these three Sangams flourished under the royal\u00a0patronage of the Pandyas.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Sangam<\/strong><\/td>\r\nPlace<\/strong><\/td>\r\nAttended by<\/strong><\/td>\r\nImportant work<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
First Sangam<\/td>\r\nTen-Madurai<\/td>\r\nAttended by gods and legendary sages and presided over by Agastasya (Agattiyar)<\/td>\r\nNo literary work of this Sangam was available.\u00a0Agayattiyam\u00a0<\/strong>is considered to be the earliest no-extant Tamil work composed during this period.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Second Sangam<\/td>\r\nKapadapuram<\/td>\r\nAttended by kings and poets and presided by\u00a0Tolkappiyar<\/strong><\/td>\r\nAll the literary works had perished except\u00a0Tolkappiyam<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Third Sangam<\/td>\r\nNew Madurai<\/td>\r\nFounded by\u00a0Mudathirumaran<\/strong>\u00a0and was attended by a large number of poets and presided over by\u00a0Nakkirar<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\nEight anthologies are known as\u00a0Ettuttokoi<\/strong>\/Ettuthokai, ten idylls are known as\u00a0Pattuppattu<\/strong>. Five epics are known as\u00a0Aimperunkappiyam\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

Table: Sangam assemblies<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

Kingdoms during Sangam Age<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n

During the Sangam Age, the Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas. They were together, also known as\u00a0Muvendar<\/strong>. The political history of these dynasties can be traced from the literary references.<\/p>\r\n

\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Kingdom<\/strong><\/td>\r\nRuling region<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCapital<\/strong><\/td>\r\nEmblem<\/strong><\/td>\r\nFirst ruler<\/strong><\/td>\r\nImportant Sea ports<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Chera<\/td>\r\nModern Kerala<\/td>\r\nVanji<\/td>\r\nBow<\/td>\r\nUdayancheral<\/td>\r\nTondi and Musiri<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Chola<\/td>\r\nFrom modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh. (between Pennar and Vellar rivers)<\/td>\r\nUraiyur (later shifted to Puhar by Karikala)<\/td>\r\nTiger<\/td>\r\nElara<\/td>\r\nPoompuhar (Kaveripattanam)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Pandya<\/td>\r\nPresent day south Tamil Nadu<\/td>\r\nMadurai (On the banks of River Vaigai)<\/td>\r\nFish (carp)<\/td>\r\nMudukudumi<\/td>\r\nKorkai<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

Table: Sangam Kingdoms<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

Cheras<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

    \r\n\t
  • Works mentioning Chera kings:<\/strong>\r\n
      \r\n\t
    • Pugalur inscription<\/strong>\u00a0refers to three generations of Chera rulers.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Pathitrupathu<\/strong>\u00a0speaks of eight Chera kings, their territory and their fame.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Famous rulers:\u00a0<\/strong>Perum Sotru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and Cheran Senguttuvan.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Titles:\u00a0<\/strong>The Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Cheran Senguttuvan:<\/strong>\r\n
        \r\n\t
      • He belonged to the 2nd century A.D. and his expedition to the Himalayas was remarkable (mentioned in\u00a0Silappathikaram<\/strong>). He defeated many north Indian monarchs.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • He introduced the\u00a0Pattini cult,\u00a0<\/strong>or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • Gajabhagu II<\/strong>\u00a0from Sri Lanka was a contemporary of him (confirmed by Silappathigaram, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
      • Coinage:\u00a0<\/strong>Some Cheras issued copper and lead coins, with Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating Roman coins. There are many other Chera coins with their bow and arrow emblem but without any writing on them.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • External contacts<\/strong>: The Romans set up two regiments at Muzris. They also built a temple of Augustus at Muzris.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

        Cholas<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

          \r\n\t
        • Titles:<\/strong>\u00a0The Chola kings assumed titles like Senni, Valavan and Killi.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Karikala:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n
            \r\n\t
          • Pattinappalai\u00a0<\/strong>portrays his early life and his military conquests.<\/li>\r\n\t
          • In the\u00a0Battle of Venni<\/strong>, he defeated the mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains, and in the Battle\u00a0of Vahaipparandalai<\/strong>, he defeated nine enemy chieftains.<\/li>\r\n\t
          • He was responsible for the reclamation of forest lands and brought them under cultivation, thus adding prosperity to the people.<\/li>\r\n\t
          • He also built the\u00a0Kallanai<\/strong>\u00a0dam across the river Kaveri and also constructed many irrigation tanks.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

            Pandyas<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

              \r\n\t
            • Famous kings:<\/strong>\u00a0Nediyoan, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi and Mudathirumaaran.\r\n\r\n
                \r\n\t
              • Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan<\/strong>\u00a0won victories over the Aryan forces. He was responsible for the execution of\u00a0Kovalan,<\/strong>\u00a0for which Kannagi burnt Madurai (Silappadikaram).<\/li>\r\n\t
              • Thalaiyalanganaattu Cheruvendra Neduncheliyan<\/strong>\u00a0won the battle at Talaiyalanganam against the combined army of the Chera, the Chola and five Velir chieftains and wore the title of\u00a0Talaiyalanganattu<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
              • The last famous Pandyan king was\u00a0Uggira Peruvaludhi.\u00a0<\/strong>The Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age began to decline due to the invasion of the\u00a0Kalabhras<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
              • Titles:<\/strong>\u00a0Pandya kings assumed the titles like Thennavar and Minavar.<\/li>\r\n\t
              • Maduraikkanji, written by Mangudi Maruthanar,<\/strong>\u00a0describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandya country, including the flourishing\u00a0seaport of Korkai.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
              • They sent emissaries to Roman emperors\u00a0Augustus and Trajan.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                Minor Kingdoms<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n

                The minor chieftains played a significant role in the Sangam period.<\/p>\r\n

                  \r\n\t
                • Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman<\/strong>: popular for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets and known as\u00a0Kadai Yelu Vallalgal.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                • Although they were subordinate to the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, they were powerful and popular in their respective regions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                  Sangam Polity and Administration<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n
                    \r\n\t
                  • Form of government:<\/strong>\u00a0Generally, hereditary monarchy was followed. The king also took the advice of his ministers, court poets and the\u00a0imperial court or \u2018Avai\u2019<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
                  • Administration:\u00a0<\/strong>The kingdom was divided into\u00a0Mandalam (Territory), Nadu (province), Ur (town), Perur (big village), and Sirur (small village)<\/strong>\u00a0for administrative convenience.<\/strong>\r\n
                      \r\n\t
                    • Terms related to towns: Pattinam<\/strong>\u00a0(coastal town),\u00a0Puhar<\/strong>\u00a0(harbour areas),\u00a0Cheri<\/strong>\u00a0(a suburb of town)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                    • Officials:<\/strong>\u00a0The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were\u00a0ministers (amaichar)<\/strong>,\u00a0priests (anthanar)<\/strong>,\u00a0military commanders (senathipathi)<\/strong>,\u00a0envoys (thuthar) and spies (otrar).<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                    • Thinai classification:\u00a0<\/strong>Three levels of rulers are found:\r\n\r\n
                        \r\n\t
                      • Kizhar:<\/strong>\u00a0heads of the villages or a small territory, later known as nadu.<\/li>\r\n\t
                      • Velir:<\/strong>\u00a0controlled the territories of varied geographical nature, mainly hilly and forest areas.<\/li>\r\n\t
                      • Vendar:<\/strong>\u00a0kings controlling larger, fertile territories.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                      • Military administration:<\/strong>\u00a0It was efficiently organized, and each ruler had a regular army and their respective\u00a0Kodimaram (tutelary tree).\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                      • Revenue Administration:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n
                          \r\n\t
                        • Land revenue<\/strong>\u00a0was the chief source of the state\u2019s income, while customs duty was also imposed on foreign trade.<\/li>\r\n\t
                        • The\u00a0Pattinappalai<\/strong>\u00a0refers to the customs officials employed in the seaport of Puhar. Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury<\/li>\r\n\t
                        • Terms<\/strong>\u00a0related to taxes:\r\n\r\n
                            \r\n\t
                          • Karai<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 land tax<\/li>\r\n\t
                          • Ulgu<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 custom duties<\/li>\r\n\t
                          • Iravu<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 Forced gift\/extra demand<\/li>\r\n\t
                          • Irai<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 tribute paid by feudatories<\/li>\r\n\t
                          • Variyar<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 Tax collector<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                            Sangam Economy<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n
                              \r\n\t
                            • Agriculture:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n
                                \r\n\t
                              • Agriculture was the\u00a0chief occupation<\/strong>\u00a0during the Sangam period.<\/li>\r\n\t
                              • Crops:<\/strong>\u00a0Rice, ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and fruits were widely cultivated. Jackfruit and pepper were famous in Chera country.\u00a0Paddy\u00a0<\/strong>was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya countries.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                              • Handicrafts Industry:<\/strong>\r\n
                                  \r\n\t
                                • Activities:<\/strong>\u00a0Weaving, metal works and carpentry, shipbuilding and the making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory were practised.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                • Major craft production centres:\u00a0<\/strong>Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam, Madurai, Korkai, and Pattanam in Kerala were the important\u00a0craft production centres<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                • The spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                • There was a great demand in the\u00a0Western world\u00a0<\/strong>for cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                                • Trade:<\/strong>\r\n
                                    \r\n\t
                                  • Internal trade:<\/strong>\u00a0It was mostly carried through the barter system.\u00a0Maduraikanchi<\/strong>\u00a0mentions both day and night markets that sell various craft items.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                  • External trade:<\/strong>\r\n
                                      \r\n\t
                                    • It was carried between\u00a0South India and the Greek kingdoms.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                                    • Ports:<\/strong>\u00a0The port city of Puhar (an emporium of foreign trade), Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                    • Source:<\/strong>\u00a0The author of\u00a0Periplus<\/strong>\u00a0provides the most valuable information on foreign trade.\u00a0Gold and silver coins issued by Roman emperors<\/strong>\u00a0have been discovered around Tamil Nadu.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                    • Exports:<\/strong>\u00a0cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                    • Imports:<\/strong>\u00a0Gold, horses and sweet wine.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                                    • Trade-related terms:<\/strong>\u00a0vanikan (Trader), chattan, nigama, umanar (salt merchants), chattu (mobile merchants).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                                      Sangam Society<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n

                                      The society during Sangam was characterised by a well-defined social structure, gender equality to some extent. The society was organised into different strata or divisions based on occupation and land.<\/p>\r\n

                                      Social structure:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                                        \r\n\t
                                      • Tolkappiyam refers to a five-fold division of lands:\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
                                        \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                                        Land type (Panchitanai)<\/strong><\/td>\r\nChief deity<\/strong><\/td>\r\nChief occupation<\/strong><\/td>\r\nInhabitants<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                        Kurinji (hilly tracks)<\/td>\r\nMurugan<\/td>\r\nhunting and honey collection<\/td>\r\nKurvar, Vetar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                        Mullai (pastoral)<\/td>\r\nMayon (Vishnu)<\/td>\r\ncattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products<\/td>\r\nEyinar, Maravar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                        Marudam (agricultural)<\/td>\r\nIndira<\/td>\r\nagriculture<\/td>\r\nAyar, Idaiyar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                        Neydal (coastal)<\/td>\r\nVarunan<\/td>\r\nfishing and salt manufacturing<\/td>\r\nUlavar, Vellalar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                        Palai (desert)<\/td>\r\nKorravai<\/td>\r\nrobbery<\/td>\r\nParatavar, Valayar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

                                        \u00a0Table: Ecological divisions in the Sangam period<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                                          \r\n\t
                                        • Caste system:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n
                                            \r\n\t
                                          • Tolkappiyam<\/strong>\u00a0also refers to four castes:<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
                                            \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                                            Caste<\/strong><\/td>\r\nAssociated<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                            Arasar<\/td>\r\nruling class<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                            Anthanar<\/td>\r\npolity and religion<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                            Vanigar<\/td>\r\ntrade and commerce<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                                            Vellalar<\/td>\r\nagriculturists<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

                                            Table: Occupations of various castes during the Sangam period<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                                              \r\n\t
                                            • Terms:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n
                                                \r\n\t
                                              • Kadaisiyar and Adimai:<\/strong>\u00a0Landless labourers, including slaves.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                              • Pariyars:<\/strong>\u00a0agriculturist labourers<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                                              • Other tribal groups:<\/strong>\u00a0Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar, Pulaiyar, Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                                                Position of Women<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                                                  \r\n\t
                                                • Freedom:<\/strong>\u00a0Women in Sangam society had greater freedom and autonomy compared to their counterparts in many other ancient civilisations. Women were also involved in literary work, dance and music.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                                • Marriage:<\/strong>\u00a0Love marriage was a common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners. However, the life of widows was miserable.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                                • Poets:<\/strong>\u00a0Tamil poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                                • The\u00a0practice of Sati\u00a0<\/strong>was also prevalent in the higher strata of society.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                                • Karpu or Chaste<\/strong>\u00a0life was considered the highest virtue of women.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                                                  Sangam Religion<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n
                                                    \r\n\t
                                                  • Primary deity:<\/strong>\u00a0Seyon or Murugan: He was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                                  • Other gods:<\/strong>\u00a0Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and Korravai.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                                  • Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship:<\/strong>\u00a0The Hero Stone was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                                                    Decline of Sangam Age<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n
                                                      \r\n\t
                                                    • Invasion of Kalabhras:<\/strong>\u00a0Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries, which disrupted the social and political fabric of South India. Their rule has been called an\u00a0interregnum or \u2018dark age\u2019<\/strong>\u00a0by earlier historians. However, the greatest Tamil work,\u00a0Tirukkural,<\/strong>\u00a0was written during this period.<\/li>\r\n\t
                                                    • Period of transition:<\/strong>\u00a0After the 3rd<\/sup>\u00a0century AD, there was a period of transition, leading to enlarged state societies under the Pallavas ruling over northern Tamilnadu and the Pandyas in the south from the sixth century onwards.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                                                      \"\"<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

                                                      Map: Sangam Age<\/strong><\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                                                      Sangam Age was a crucial period in South Indian history with Chera, Chola & Pandyas as ruling dynasties.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":8159,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[173],"tags":[40,681],"class_list":{"0":"post-3538","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-quest-level-3","8":"tag-quest","9":"tag-sangam-age"},"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3538","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/6"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3538"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3538\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":22679,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3538\/revisions\/22679"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/8159"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3538"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3538"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3538"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}