{"id":3581,"date":"2026-01-05T21:45:01","date_gmt":"2026-01-05T16:15:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=3581"},"modified":"2026-01-06T12:10:04","modified_gmt":"2026-01-06T06:40:04","slug":"post-mauryan-kingdoms-in-north-western-india","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/post-mauryan-kingdoms-in-north-western-india\/","title":{"rendered":"Post-Mauryan Kingdoms in North-Western India"},"content":{"rendered":"

Indo-Greeks<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n

After\u00a0Alexander<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0died in 323 BCE<\/strong>, many Greeks settled on India's northwestern border with Bactria. The Indo-Greeks were Bactrian Greeks who ruled over parts of northwest India between the second and early first centuries BCE. Since the successors of Ashoka were too weak to hold ground, a\u00a0series of invasions<\/strong>\u00a0on the\u00a0northwestern border<\/strong>\u00a0of India started.<\/p>\r\n

\"\"<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

Map: Indo-Greeks<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Indo Greeks<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Period:<\/strong>\u00a0130 BCE - 80 BCE<\/td>\r\nCapital:<\/strong>\u00a0Taxila and Sialkot<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\r\n
    \r\n\t
  • At the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, the Indo-Greeks were the\u00a0first to invade<\/strong>\u00a0India.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • They introduced the\u00a0practice of governorship<\/strong>\u00a0and the use of curtains in India.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • They patronised both\u00a0Buddhism\u00a0<\/strong>and Hinduism<\/strong>.\u00a0The Maghera inscription<\/strong>\u00a0near Mathura gives an account of Indo-Greek rule.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Exquisite coinage system:\u00a0<\/strong>The coins give us a visual picture of the kings. Minted in the same style as Greek coins of silver, they carried the portrait of the reigning king on one side with his name.\r\n\r\n
      \r\n\t
    • They were the\u00a0first to issue gold coins<\/strong>\u00a0bearing inscriptions of images of kings and gods.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • The initial series used images of Greek deities, but later coins had images of Indian deities as well.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • The coins of the Greek kings in India were\u00a0bilingual\u00a0<\/strong>(Greek on the front side and in the Pali language).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
    • They introduced\u00a0Hellenistic art<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0to the north-western frontier of India.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Demetrius:\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\n\r\n
    \r\n\t
  • He was the son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I and invaded\u00a0Afghanistan and Punjab<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Appolodotus and Menander:<\/strong>\u00a0From Taxila, he sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander, for further conquests.\r\n\r\n
      \r\n\t
    • Appolodotus conquered Sindh and marched up to Ujjain.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Menander extended his rule up to Mathura, and from there, he attempted to capture Pataliputra. But he was stopped by the army of\u00a0Vasumitra<\/strong>, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Menander (165\/145\u2013130 BCE)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n\r\n
    \r\n\t
  • He was also known as\u00a0Milinda,<\/strong>\u00a0and the capital of his kingdom was\u00a0Sakala<\/strong>\u00a0(Sialkot).<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Rule and conquests:\u00a0<\/strong>He ruled a large kingdom in the northwest of the country. He is said to have raided the Gangetic region along with the kings of Panchala and Mathura.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Religion:<\/strong>\u00a0He was converted to\u00a0Buddhism<\/u>\u00a0by\u00a0Nagasena<\/strong>\u00a0(Nagarjuna).<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Coinage:<\/strong>\u00a0His coins have been found over an extensive area ranging from the valleys of the Kabul and Indus rivers to as far as western Uttar Pradesh. He is described as \u201cking\u201d and \u201csoter\u201d or saviour<\/strong>\u00a0in his coins.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Related literature:<\/strong>Milinda-panho<\/strong>\u00a0written by Nagasena (question-and-answer discussion on Buddhism with the teacher Nagasena)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Antialcidas\u00a0<\/strong>(115\u201395 BCE)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n\r\n
    \r\n\t
  • He sent his emissary,\u00a0Heliodorus<\/strong>, to the court of King Bhagabhadra and erected a pillar or garudadhvaja with its capital adorned by a figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna (Vasudeva). This is also known as\u00a0Heliodorus Pillar or Besnagar Period.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\r\n

Decline:\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

    \r\n\t
  • Yavana invasion<\/strong>\u00a0of Ayodhya (Saketa) and further east into the Magadha territory.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Cessation of land to Shungas.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Loss of Bacteria to the Parthians and Sakas.<\/li>\r\n\t
  • Internal squabbles among many claimants to power.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

    Sakas (150 BC \u2013 400 AD)<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n

    The Scythians, who were originally from\u00a0Central Asia<\/strong>, were referred to as\u00a0'Shaka'\u00a0<\/strong>in India. Interestingly,\u00a0Patanjali\u00a0<\/strong>refers to the Shakas as\u00a0'Anirvasita (pure) Shudras'\u00a0<\/strong>in his Mahabhasya. The Shakas were divided into\u00a0five branches<\/strong>, each with their own seat of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.<\/p>\r\n

    \"\"<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

    Map of Sakas<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

    \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
    Sakas<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Period:<\/strong>\u00a0150 BC \u2013 400 AD<\/td>\r\nCapital:\u00a0<\/strong>Taxila and Mathura<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    \r\n
      \r\n\t
    • Origin:\u00a0<\/strong>They were also known as the\u00a0Scythians\u00a0<\/strong>and belonged to central Asia (Western China).<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Rule of extent:\u00a0<\/strong>They replaced the Indo-greeks in India and extended their rule over northwestern India.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Division:\u00a0<\/strong>There were mainly two different groups: Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and Western Satraps ruling over Maharashtra.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • Related works:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n
        \r\n\t
      • Yuga Purana mentions an invasion of Pataliputra by the Scythians sometime during the 1st century BCE.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • The consecration of a Buddha relic in a stupa is mentioned in the Mathura lion capital, which is linked to several Indo-Scythian kings from Maues to Rajuvula.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
      • Coinage:<\/strong>\r\n
          \r\n\t
        • The Western Satraps' coins bear the king's head on one side and the Buddhist chaitya or stupa on the other.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Prakrit\u00a0<\/strong>language has been found written in many scripts.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Maues<\/strong><\/td>\r\n\r\n
      \r\n\t
    • The\u00a0founder<\/strong>\u00a0of the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • His son and successor was\u00a0Azes I.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Rudradaman I<\/strong><\/td>\r\n\r\n
      \r\n\t
    • He was the famous Saka ruler who repaired\u00a0Lake Sudarshan<\/strong>\u00a0for better irrigation.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • The\u00a0inscription at Girnar<\/strong>\u00a0(Junagarh, written in\u00a0Sanskrit<\/strong>) mentions his achievements.<\/li>\r\n\t
    • He issued the first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

      Parthians \/ Pahalavas (247 BC - 224 AD)<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n
      \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
      Parthians \/ Pahalavas<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
      Period:<\/strong>\u00a0247 BC - 224 AD<\/td>\r\nCapital:\u00a0<\/strong>Taxila<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
      \r\n
        \r\n\t
      • Rule of extent:\u00a0<\/strong>Parthians ruled over the present region of Khorasan in Iran<\/li>\r\n\t
      • It was\u00a0founded by Arsaces I of Parthia<\/strong>\u00a0when he rebelled against the Seleucid Empire<\/li>\r\n\t
      • They replaced the Sakas in North-Western India.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • The\u00a0Periplus of the Erythraean Sea<\/strong>\u00a0describes the presence of Parthian kings fighting with each other in the area of Sindh.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • Takht-i-Bahi inscription\u00a0<\/strong>mentions Parthian rule in the north-western area of Pakistan.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • They mostly followed Zoroastrianism and had strong cultural similarities with the Shakas.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • St. Thomas\u00a0<\/strong>is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity during the reign of Gondophernes.<\/li>\r\n\t
      • Coins of the Hindu deity\u00a0Shiva\u00a0<\/strong>have also been found issued in the reign of Gondophares I.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

        Kushanas<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n

        Kushan dynasty was the ruling line descended from the\u00a0Yuezhi<\/strong>, a people that ruled over most of the\u00a0northern Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia<\/strong>\u00a0during the first three centuries of the Common Era. The Yuezhi\u00a0conquered Bactria in the 2nd century BCE<\/strong>\u00a0and divided the country into\u00a0five chiefdoms<\/strong>, one of which was that of the Kushans.<\/p>\r\n

        \"\"<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

        Map of Kushana<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

        \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
        Kushanas<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        Period:<\/strong>\u00a02nd<\/sup>\u00a0century BC \u2013 3rd<\/sup>\u00a0century AD.<\/td>\r\nCapital:<\/strong>\u00a0Peshawar, Taxila, Mathura<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \r\n
          \r\n\t
        • Origin:<\/strong>\u00a0They were the branch of the\u00a0Yuchi tribe<\/strong>, originally belonging to central Asia. They replaced the Sakas and Pahalvas.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • The extent of the empire:\u00a0<\/strong>From Oxus to the Ganges, from Khorasan in central Asia to Pataliputra in Bihar.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Rajatarangini,<\/strong>\u00a0written by Kalhana, mentions in detail the rule of the Kushan kings and their benevolence towards Buddhism.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Title<\/strong>: Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title\u00a0Devaputra<\/strong>, or \u201cson of god\u201d, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\n\r\n
          \r\n\t
        • Founder of the Kushana dynasty.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Occupied Kabul Valley and issued coins in his name, minting copper coins in imitation of Roman coins.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        Wima Kadphises or Kadphises II<\/strong><\/td>\r\n\r\n
          \r\n\t
        • Conquered the whole of northwestern India upto Mathura.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • He issued\u00a0gold coins<\/strong>\u00a0with titles like\u00a0\u201cLord of the Whole World\u201d.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        Kanishka (78-120 AD)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n\r\n
          \r\n\t
        • He was the most important ruler of this dynasty and the\u00a0founder of the Saka Era<\/strong>\u00a0in 78 AD. He extended his rule from Central Asia to North India.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • He patronised Buddhism and scholars like\u00a0Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
        • He convened the\u00a0fourth Buddhist council\u00a0<\/strong>at Kundalvan in\u00a0Kashmir\u00a0<\/strong>with\u00a0Vasumitra\u00a0<\/strong>as its president. It led to the division of Buddhism into Hinayana and\u00a0Mahayana<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • He built the city of\u00a0Purushapura (Peshawar) as his capital.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
        • He was defeated by the Chinese general Pancho in his first expedition to China, but later\u00a0he defeated Panyang<\/strong>\u00a0(son of Pancho).<\/li>\r\n\t
        • He\u00a0sent missionaries to Central Asia<\/strong>\u00a0and China for the propagation of Buddhism.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Rabatak Inscription<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0relates to Kanishka\u2019s genealogy with Kujula Kadphises.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        Kushana Administration<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \r\n
          \r\n\t
        • Kushana Empire was divided\u00a0into Satraps (provinces)<\/strong>, ruled by a\u00a0Mahakshatrapa (military governor)<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Gramika and Padrapala<\/strong>\u00a0were the village headman who collected the king\u2019s dues and took cognisance of crimes in his area.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • They used\u00a0dual hereditary rule<\/strong>, in which two rulers held power concurrently.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Military administration:\u00a0<\/strong>The kshatrapas exerted their authority through\u00a0\u201cdandanayaka and mahadandanayaka\u201d<\/strong>, semi-military officers.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Coinage:<\/strong>\u00a0Kushana coins were of the highest quality and conformed to the weight standards of Roman coins. In the coins, Kushana rulers are referred to as\u00a0\u201cking of kings\u201d, \u201cCaesar\u201d, \u201clord of all lands\u201d,<\/strong>\u00a0and other such titles.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        Art and architecture<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \r\n
          \r\n\t
        • Development of art and literature flourished partly due to royal patronage and partly due to other factors, like the growing ascendancy of Mahayana Buddhism.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Art:<\/strong>\u00a0They patronised\u00a0Mathura and Gandhara Art<\/strong>. They had Greek influence in Gandhara Art.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Architecture:<\/strong>\u00a0The Buddhists began to carve out rock caves in the hills of western India, which served as religious centres with\u00a0chaityas and viharas<\/strong>, stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri caves in Mumbai.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Literature:<\/strong>Buddhacharita,<\/strong>Saundarananda<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0Sariputra<\/strong>Prakaran<\/strong>\u00a0by Asvaghosha (author of the first Sanskrit play),\u00a0Paramita Sutras<\/strong>\u00a0by Nagarjuna,\u00a0Mahavibasha Shastra<\/strong>\u00a0by Vasumitra,\u00a0Charakasamhita<\/strong>\u00a0by Charak,<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \r\n

        Gandhara Art<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\r\n

        \"Gandhara<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n
          \r\n\t
        • Heavy influence of\u00a0Greek or Hellenistic sculpture<\/strong>, so it is also known as Indo-Greek art.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Early Gandhara School used\u00a0bluish-grey sandstone,<\/strong>\u00a0while the later period saw the use of mud and stucco.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Mainly Buddhist imagery, influenced by the\u00a0Greco-Roman pantheon.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
        • Patronised by\u00a0Kushana<\/strong>\u00a0rulers.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Developed in the\u00a0North West Frontier<\/strong>, in the modern-day area of Kandahar.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • The Buddha is shown in a\u00a0spiritual state<\/strong>, with\u00a0wavy hair<\/strong>. He wears fewer ornaments and is seated in a yogi position. The eyes are\u00a0half-closed as in meditation<\/strong>. A protrusion is shown on the head, signifying the omniscience of Buddha.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \r\n

        Mathura Art<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\r\n

        \"Art<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n
          \r\n\t
        • It was\u00a0developed indigenously<\/strong>\u00a0and not influenced by external cultures.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • The sculptures of Mathura School were made using spotted\u00a0red sandstone<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • It had influence of\u00a0all three religions<\/strong>\u00a0of the time, i.e. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • It was patronised by the\u00a0Kushana rulers.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
        • It was developed in and around\u00a0Mathura, Sonkh and Kankalitila. Kankalitila<\/strong>\u00a0was famous for Jain sculptures.<\/li>\r\n\t
        • Buddha is shown in a delighted mood with a smiling face.<\/strong>\u00a0The body symbolises masculinity, wearing a tight dress. The face and head are shaven. Buddha is seated in padmasana with different mudras, and his face reflects grace. A similar protuberance is shown on the head.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n

          Indo-Sasanians<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n
            \r\n\t
          • They were the branch of the Sasanian Persians, who rose due to the decline to Kushanas.<\/li>\r\n\t
          • They occupied the\u00a0lower Indus region<\/strong>\u00a0in the mid-third century AD.<\/li>\r\n\t
          • They followed the\u00a0Zoroastrian religion\u00a0<\/strong>and issued extensive coins inspired by Kushana co<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

            Contribution of foreign invasions in Indian History<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n
              \r\n\t
            • Structures and Pottery:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n
                \r\n\t
              • The Shaka-Kushan phase saw a distinct advance in building activities.\u00a0The use of burnt bricks for flooring and tiles<\/strong>\u00a0for both flooring and roofing was used. The period also saw the\u00a0construction of brick walls.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
              • The characteristic pottery is\u00a0red ware, both plain and polished<\/strong>, with medium to fine fabric. The distinctive pots\u00a0are sprinklers and spouted channels<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
              • Better Cavalry:<\/strong>\r\n
                  \r\n\t
                • The Shakas and Kushans\u00a0introduced better cavalry<\/strong>\u00a0and the use of the riding horse on a\u00a0large scale.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                • They popularised the\u00a0use of reins and saddles<\/strong>, which appear in the Buddhist sculpture of the second and third centuries AD.<\/li>\r\n\t
                • The Shakas and Kushans\u00a0introduced the turban, tunic, trousers, and long heavy coat.\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                • The Central Asians also brought in caps, helmets, and boots which were used by warriors.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                • Trade and Agriculture:<\/strong>\r\n
                    \r\n\t
                  • The coming of the Central Asian people established intimate contacts between Central Asia and India.<\/li>\r\n\t
                  • The Kushans\u00a0controlled the\u00a0<\/strong>Silk Route<\/u><\/strong>, which started from China and passed through their empire in Central Asia.<\/li>\r\n\t
                  • Kushans were the\u00a0first rulers in India to issue gold<\/strong>\u00a0coins on a wide scale.<\/li>\r\n\t
                  • The Kushans also\u00a0promoted agriculture.<\/strong>\u00a0The earliest archaeological traces of large-scale irrigation in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and western Central Asia date to the Kushan period.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                  • Polity:<\/strong>\r\n
                      \r\n\t
                    • The Kushans adopted the\u00a0pompous title of 'king of kings',<\/strong>\u00a0which indicates that they collected tributes from numerous small princes.<\/li>\r\n\t
                    • The Shakas and Kushans\u00a0strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship<\/strong>. Kushan kings called themselves sons of god.<\/li>\r\n\t
                    • The Kushans\u00a0strengthened the satrap system of government adopted by the Shakas.<\/strong>\u00a0The empire was divided into numerous satrapies, and each was placed under the rule of a satrap.<\/li>\r\n\t
                    • Some curious practices such\u00a0as hereditary- dual rule<\/strong>, that is, two kings ruling in the same kingdom simultaneously.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                    • New Elements in Indian Society:\u00a0<\/strong>The Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians, and the Kushans were foreigners who eventually\u00a0assimilated their identity in India.<\/strong>\u00a0In no other period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society on such a large scale as they were in post-Maurya times.<\/li>\r\n\t
                    • Religious Developments:<\/strong>\r\n
                        \r\n\t
                      • Some rulers and others from Central Asia adopted\u00a0Vaishnavism<\/strong>, while few other rulers adopted\u00a0Buddhism<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t
                      • The Kushan rulers worshipped both\u00a0Shiva and the Buddha<\/strong>, and the images of these\u00a0two gods appeared on the Kushan coins.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                      • This period saw the\u00a0development of Mahayana Buddhism<\/strong>\u00a0during the rule of Kanishka.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t
                      • Art and literature:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n
                          \r\n\t
                        • This period saw the development of two art schools of sculptures:\u00a0Gandhara School of Art and Mathura School of Art.\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                        • They promoted the use of\u00a0Greek, Kharoshti and Brahmi\u00a0<\/strong>script and Greek, Prakirt and Sanskrit languages.<\/li>\r\n\t
                        • The development of Mahayana led to new texts like\u00a0Mahavatsu and Divyavadana.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t
                        • Natyashastra<\/strong>\u00a0of Bharata and\u00a0Kamasutra<\/strong>\u00a0of Vatsyayana are attributed to this period.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                          Weak governance Post-Ashoka led to invasions & rise of several kingdoms along India’s northwestern border.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":16692,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[173],"tags":[690,40],"class_list":{"0":"post-3581","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-quest-level-3","8":"tag-post-mauryan-kingdoms-in-north-western-india","9":"tag-quest"},"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3581","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/6"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3581"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3581\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":22162,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3581\/revisions\/22162"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/16692"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3581"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3581"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3581"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}