{"id":3593,"date":"2026-01-02T12:48:32","date_gmt":"2026-01-02T07:18:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=3593"},"modified":"2026-01-03T15:59:35","modified_gmt":"2026-01-03T10:29:35","slug":"imperial-cholas-art-architecture-and-literature","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/imperial-cholas-art-architecture-and-literature\/","title":{"rendered":"Imperial Cholas: Art, Architecture and Literature"},"content":{"rendered":"<h2><strong>Chola Architecture<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p>Chola architecture was a continuation of the Pallava architecture, with some variations. Under the patronage of the Chola rulers, temple architecture\u00a0<strong>reached its zenith<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Cholas used material of\u00a0<strong>stone instead of bricks<\/strong>\u00a0due to its greater durability.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Temples built under Aditya and Parantaka contained only three niches in the shrine walls, one on each wall, and two niches in the walls of the ardhamandapa, again one on each wall.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>The practice of building temples<\/strong>\u00a0with the patronage of Chola kings and queens was more prevalent.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Devadana\u00a0<\/strong>was the land gifted to the temples, exempted from tax.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" colspan=\"3\"><strong>Chola architecture<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td rowspan=\"9\"><strong>Features of Chola temples<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Boundary walls:<\/strong>\u00a0Chola temples had high boundary walls surrounding the temple.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Vimana:\u00a0<\/strong>The vimanas rose above the sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) of the temple in the form of a stepped pyramid that rises up linearly rather than curved. There was only<strong>\u00a0one vimana\u00a0<\/strong>on top of the main temple.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Gopurama:<\/strong>\u00a0The front wall had a high entrance gateway known as gopuram.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong><u>Panchayatan style<\/u><\/strong><strong>:\u00a0<\/strong>The temple premise was laid out in panchayatan style with a\u00a0<strong>principal temple and four subsidiary shrines.\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Shikhara:<\/strong>\u00a0The crowning element is shaped like<strong>\u00a0an octagon<\/strong>\u00a0and is known as shikhara.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Antarala:<\/strong>\u00a0It is the vestibular tunnel connecting the\u00a0<strong>assembly hall with the garbhagriha<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Mandap:<\/strong>\u00a0It is a\u00a0<strong>pillared hall<\/strong>\u00a0with elaborately carved pillars and a flat roof.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Sculptures:\u00a0<\/strong>The\u00a0<strong>entrance of the garbhagriha<\/strong>\u00a0had statues of Dwaarpal, Mithun and Yaksha.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Water tank:<\/strong>\u00a0The water tank\u00a0<strong>inside the temple<\/strong>\u00a0enclosure was a unique feature of the Chola style.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong><u>Nataraja Temple<\/u><\/strong><strong>, Chidambaram<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh6.googleusercontent.com\/d2FlUeco84K3LgmD9xGYx3QGcpuL0VUte5pA4vyOd6VpeYt1i_3G66oCgcAebVolPIw0vq-Lh4xyI0lDWV0P2NRXLkoRj6b8T3Rsktwt3K8epSMDYhkwh9mH52bEfN-fhBJMlvNA1YNaQdHU81IAjA\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Feature:\u00a0<\/strong>It is dedicated to\u00a0<strong>Lord Shiva,\u00a0<\/strong>but the Vaishnavite deity,\u00a0<strong>Lord Govindaraja\u00a0<\/strong>too is worshipped here.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Shiva is depicted in dancing form and is seen performing\u00a0<strong>\u201cAnanda Tandava\u201d<\/strong>(dance of delight).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Patronage: Parantaka I\u00a0<\/strong>provided the\u00a0<strong>vimana of the famous Nataraja temple<\/strong>\u00a0at Chidambaram with a golden roof.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong><u>Nageswaraswamy Temple<\/u><\/strong><strong>\u00a0(Tamilnadu)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh5.googleusercontent.com\/zFmFSi-V3ZIgtM_fRvwY6eE2pFRyoSt8Hg6fNCp56m22zFp6h8z9iLC7LKeNWWj2xjdwJOwyTK54Mzyb_-fc02kmRF9D4cnCWl_lX1G6m50wzRSxxXpx9JYNm-EqaGvVRlnZeizlECH7T5C6ymL1Vg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Feature:<\/strong>\u00a0It is a\u00a0<strong>Shiva temple\u00a0<\/strong>in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>It allows sunlight inside the temple, right on the sanctum, only during the Tamil month of Chithirai (April\/May).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Aditya Chola built it during the 9th century.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong>Rajarajeswara temple (Tanjore, Tamilnadu)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh5.googleusercontent.com\/jAyuLmip24ckxayUEsVP99-QFX85wWTthC9rGpAmGVpEb46jJ6xbxjlZuwJj5QaE21f3wNQwsgOj2ZjAR9hgh_X9wqBE6kVYQpT0RMn-F9-55hlCC-AM57TCGGd5HJ467AGlutuC5CoXoh9YIXOPBA\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>It is also known as\u00a0<strong>Periya Kovil, BrihadeeshwaraTemple and Rajarajesvaram.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Patronage:\u00a0<\/strong>It was built by emperor\u00a0<strong>Raja Raja Chola I<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>completed in 1010 AD.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Features:<\/strong>\u00a0It is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of\u00a0<strong>Dravidian architecture<\/strong>\u00a0during the Chola period.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Material:\u00a0<\/strong>The entire temple structure is made out of\u00a0<strong>granite<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Depiction:<\/strong>\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>fresco paintings and the miniature sculptures<\/strong>\u00a0of the scenes from Puranas and epics in the temple walls reveal the religious ideology of the Chola rulers.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Significance:<\/strong>\u00a0It is part of the\u00a0<strong>UNESCO World Heritage Site<\/strong>\u00a0known as the \u201c<strong>Great Living Chola Temples<\/strong>\u201d; the other two are the\u00a0<strong>Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavatesvara Temples.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong>Valisvara Temple (Tamilnadu)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh4.googleusercontent.com\/whxX3ePWTc3L2KH7QdV-K9b1b6L8Xavt1nz8nsmWIMumRJyISDpF5sVhqZfIjQErfFVopTkanwFzLoh1XG7Jk7HoVojeS6TghmCo7JFLaeI0QIA-sLmGan-X2LNIHEs_xaqsi2NRnux-pFt1Xi-Y1w\" alt=\"\" \/><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Feature:<\/strong>\u00a0It is a temple dedicated to\u00a0<strong>Lord Shiva<\/strong>, located in the\u00a0<strong>Tirunelveli\u00a0<\/strong>district of Tamil Nadu.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Patronage:<\/strong>\u00a0It was constructed in the early part of the 10th century AD by\u00a0<strong>Raja Raja Chola I<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong><u>Gangaikondacholapuram Temple<\/u><\/strong><strong>\u00a0(Tamilnadu)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh4.googleusercontent.com\/lNgiFYO_72udiAgmImN-XLee_GVCurl8Vh0Af1tRgHlbbSlymv5lh5G0Ct8ZnfsNattQmjPniaW48fHrLIQk6wrWZIg68_ENmuAXU_FhONRe5Wf_2h6oyGJGPPF-CHfjufNgHNjddE9wL7DZTVWqCA\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Patronage: Rajendra\u00a0<\/strong>I built Gangaikondacholapuram Temple in the newly\u00a0<strong>founded city of Gangaikondacholapuram<\/strong>\u00a0after his successful expedition to the Ganges.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Features:\u00a0<\/strong>It is dedicated to\u00a0<strong>Lord Shiva<\/strong>\u00a0and has features similar to the Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>There are beautiful\u00a0<strong>stone sculptures<\/strong>\u00a0in the niches.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Some of the stone sculptures on the niches -\u00a0<strong>Nataraja, Dakshinamurthy, Harahari, Lingodbhava, Vishnu, Brahma, Mahishasuramardhini, Gnana Saraswathi, Chandes anugrahamurthi.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Significance:<\/strong>\u00a0It is part of the<strong><u>UNESCO World Heritage<\/u><\/strong><u>\u00a0Site<\/u>\u00a0known as the \u201cGreat Living Chola Temples\u201d.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong>Kampaheswarar Temple (Tamilnadu)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh4.googleusercontent.com\/XdVFza-ZN9p-4wIVidcQ4fRECMh-xvJDMt_gPJZhl1-JsUQmI_-O9A9bKwA8oal7kaGza909xzqXMpgHelPRmBAdWNxrbHHfSrinKrULBmB6wBi30Cp9T_BRUSd-Nfk4LHGvJZTcMQ65Gu4VQT4vDg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Feature:\u00a0<\/strong>A\u00a0<strong>Shiva temple<\/strong>\u00a0of\u00a0<u>Dravidian architecture<\/u>\u00a0in the Thanjavur District of Tamil Nadu.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Shiva is worshipped as \"<strong>Kampahareswarar<\/strong>\" as he removed the quaking of a king who a Brahmarakshasa was haunting.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Patronage:<\/strong>\u00a0It was built by Kulothunga Chola II.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong>Airavathesvara Temple Darasuram (Tamilnadu)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh3.googleusercontent.com\/8IH9wbyW72IJFo-tLtpWDOTcTkxzOMZCDBVxj0FP3GSRLpVRS3jzHMEm1euE1ywqaiB5DfF4k-aeYttJZRYIi3iOelfDNqMBj8J-wsb1L3iGQlNh1A2VyAJ-_zT9pkMaA_JReg_9qbMAN00oNTY5gA\" alt=\"\" \/><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Feature:\u00a0<\/strong>A\u00a0<strong>Shiva temple<\/strong>\u00a0of Dravidian architecture located in the Thanjavur District of Tamil Nadu.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>It also reverentially displays\u00a0<strong>Vaishnavism and Shaktism<\/strong>\u00a0traditions of Hinduism, along with the legends associated with Nayanmars.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Incidents from the\u00a0<strong>Periyapuranam<\/strong>, in the form of miniatures, are depicted on the base of the temple's garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) wall.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Patronage:\u00a0<\/strong>It was built by\u00a0<strong>Rajaraja Chola II\u00a0<\/strong>in the 12th century CE and is a\u00a0<strong>UNESCO World Heritage Site.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong>Chudamani Vihara (Nagapattinam, Tamilnadu)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh5.googleusercontent.com\/0CEWY09YA4lgq3cMzS-pfUmiB3FiDtStjghy8Edtn0TBQe1OPZSD4Kw4S08DSM-GLimiuBHVNKyG3Qo4PVpmWGh7IKwI6KncoZt7hrF_KUdxodz7-fk_1QeG0hruWttBvbBjcSU7mxsiY-xq9laEwA\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Location:\u00a0<\/strong>It was a\u00a0<strong>Buddhist monastery<\/strong>\u00a0in Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Patronage:\u00a0<\/strong>It was built by\u00a0<strong>Sri Vijayan King Sri Mara Vijayattunga Varman<\/strong>\u00a0with the patronage of\u00a0<strong>Rajaraja Chola I<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h2><strong>Chola Art<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" colspan=\"3\"><strong>Chola art<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td rowspan=\"2\"><strong>Sculptures\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Feature:\u00a0<\/strong>Chola sculptures\u00a0<strong>adorned the walls and interiors of temples<\/strong>, showcasing the religious and spiritual beliefs of the Chola dynasty.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Themes:<\/strong>\u00a0One of the distinctive features of Chola sculptures is the\u00a0<strong>depiction of deities and mythological figures<\/strong>\u00a0with dynamic poses and expressive facial features.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Sculpture making:\u00a0<\/strong>Chola period\u00a0<strong>bronzes\u00a0<\/strong>were created using the<strong><u>lost wax technique<\/u><\/strong>. The\u00a0<strong>bronze statue of Nataraja, or dancing Siva,<\/strong>\u00a0is a masterpiece.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>They used the\u00a0<strong>Panchaloham\u00a0<\/strong>for melting, an alloy of bronze.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong>Nataraja Shiva<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/lh3.googleusercontent.com\/8KWOA0-GbGCh3ssp5bp-KRPh1KqNF4bMJ-mKR1V17XU3D3De4T3eLWTN4QxTYxGAHdz6bbiYHYfQKVTjLCMYQ64mchX3HzgAE_HN4dTE_SyThLHXbm53PjK7CYNxxIxVYMcspl2LuzY5pfjTBcAy6Q\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Shiva is dancing on the figure of a small dwarf. The\u00a0<strong>dwarf symbolises<\/strong><strong>ignorance\u00a0<\/strong>and the ego of an individual.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The matted and\u00a0<strong>flowing locks<\/strong>\u00a0of Shiva represent the\u00a0<strong>flow of the river Ganges.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>In ornamentation, one ear of Shiva has a male earring while the other has a female. This represents the form of\u00a0<strong>ardhanarishwar<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>A snake is twisted around the arm of Shiva. The\u00a0<strong>snake symbolises the kundalini power,<\/strong>\u00a0which resides in the human spine in a dormant stage. If aroused, one can attain true consciousness.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The Nataraja is surrounded by a\u00a0<strong>nimbus of glowing lights, symbolising the vast unending cycles of time.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Paintings<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Chola Paintings of South India are very significant in art.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Medium:<\/strong>\u00a0Chola paintings were predominantly executed on\u00a0<strong>walls, murals, and wooden panels<\/strong>, often adorning the interiors of temples.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>The walls of the Chola temples, such as the\u00a0<strong>Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram temples,<\/strong>\u00a0contain numerous icons of large size with fine execution<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Uniqueness:<\/strong>\u00a0The Chola paintings paid careful attention to\u00a0<strong>facial expressions and hand gestures.\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>The painting of\u00a0<strong>Rajaraja Chola I, listening to his preceptor Karuvur Devar<\/strong>\u00a0is a fine example.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Themes:<\/strong>\u00a0The subjects of Chola paintings often\u00a0<strong>revolved around deities<\/strong>\u00a0such as Shiva and Vishnu. These paintings portrayed the gods in various forms and manifestations, showcasing their\u00a0<strong>divine attributes, symbolism, and narratives.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Music and dance<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Greart patron:\u00a0<\/strong>The Chola kings, especially Rajaraja Chola I, were great connoisseurs of music and dance.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Rajaraja I\u00a0<\/strong>was instrumental in bringing back\u00a0<strong>tevaram music<\/strong>\u00a0to temples.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Uniqueness:<\/strong>\u00a0The representation of\u00a0<strong>Nataraja or Adal Vallan (king of dance)<\/strong>\u00a0in the form of the idol was the motif of Tamil music, dance and drama with hymns composed by Nayanmars.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Oduvars and Padikam Paduvars:<\/strong>\u00a0They were appointed to sing in the temples to recite Thirumurai (The Saiva canon).<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Vinnappamseivar:<\/strong>\u00a0They were the singers of hymns.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Musical education:<\/strong>\u00a0Musicians and dance masters were appointed to train the girls.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Theli-cheri-pennugal:\u00a0<\/strong>They were the dancers.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Coins<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td colspan=\"2\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Coins:\u00a0<\/strong>Chola's coinage issues were in all three metals, Gold, Silver and Copper.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Commemorative coins:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Uttama Chola struck silver with the royal emblem of\u00a0<strong>\"Tiger facing two fishes\"\u00a0<\/strong>on the obverse and the Nagari legend \"Uttama Chola\".<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The Chola King\u00a0<strong>Raja Raja I coins\u00a0<\/strong>had the standing king on one side and the seated goddess on the other side, with inscriptions generally in Sanskrit.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Rajendra I\u2019s coins had the legend\u00a0<strong>\u2018Sri Rajendra\u2019 or \u2018Gangaikonda Chola<\/strong>\u2019 inscribed with the emblems of tiger and fish.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h2><strong>Chola Literature<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p>Education was given importance. Besides the temples and mathas as educational centres. Apart from the<u>\u00a0Vedas<\/u>\u00a0and Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions. This resulted in the development of Tamil literature, which peaked during the Chola period.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Saiva Siddhanta:<\/strong>\u00a0It was a highly evolved philosophical system founded during this period.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\"><strong>Author<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\"><strong>Literary work<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\"><strong>Context<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Thiruthakkadevar<\/td>\r\n<td>Sivakasintamani<\/td>\r\n<td>is the Story of a prince who is the perfect master of all arts<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Kamban<\/td>\r\n<td>Ramavataram (Kamban Ramayana).<\/td>\r\n<td>It is the Tamil version of Ramayana based on Valmiki\u2019s Ramayana.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Sekkilar<\/td>\r\n<td>Periyapuranam (Tiruttontarpuranam)<\/td>\r\n<td>depicts the lives of the sixty-three Nayanars, the canonical poets of Tamil Shaivism.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Jayakondar<\/td>\r\n<td>Kalingattupparani<\/td>\r\n<td>It describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ottakuthur<\/td>\r\n<td>Moovarula<\/td>\r\n<td>It shows the life of three Chola kings (Vikrama Chola, Kulothunga Chola II and Rajaraja Chola II).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Pugalendi<\/td>\r\n<td>Nalavenba<\/td>\r\n<td>is the story of King Nala and Princess Damayanti.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Meikandar<\/td>\r\n<td>Sivagnana Bodham<\/td>\r\n<td>The foundational text of Saiva Siddhanta philosophy.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Kalladar<\/td>\r\n<td>Kalladam<\/td>\r\n<td>Tamil grammar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Amirthasagarar<\/td>\r\n<td>Yapperungalam<\/td>\r\n<td>Tamil grammar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Pavanandhi<\/td>\r\n<td>Nannul<\/td>\r\n<td>Tamil grammar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Buddhamitra<\/td>\r\n<td>Virasoliyam<\/td>\r\n<td>Tamil grammar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Kesava Swami<\/td>\r\n<td>Nannaranava Samkshevam<\/td>\r\n<td>Sanskrit work<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h2><strong>Inscriptions<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p>During the Chola period, numerous inscriptions were made on various surfaces, providing valuable historical and cultural insights into the dynasty's reign. Most of their inscriptions are written in Tamil; some are in Sanskrit and others in Grantham.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Temple inscriptions:<\/strong>\u00a0The Chola dynasty was known for its extensive patronage of temple construction and renovation.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Inscriptions discovered in a\u00a0<strong>Shiva temple located at Visalur village<\/strong>\u00a0in Koluthur taluk throw much light on the Chola administration in this region.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong><u>Brihadeshwara Temple<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0is the only temple in India where the king specifically talks in an inscription that he built the temple only with stones (<strong>katrali<\/strong>).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong><u>Uttaramerur inscriptions<\/u><\/strong>:\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>It speaks about Parantaka I and his victory over Madurai.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>It gives details of the process of electing members to various committees that administered the affairs of a Brahmin settlement.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Thiruvalangad inscription:<\/strong>\u00a0It mentions the Chola attack on Vizhinjam.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Cholapuram inscription:\u00a0<\/strong>It mentions t the retreat of Kulothunga Cholan to Kottattu.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The inscription at\u00a0<strong>Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai<\/strong>\u00a0provide details of the\u00a0<strong>colleges\u00a0<\/strong>that existed in these places.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><strong>Decline of Cholas<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p>The Chola dynasty was paramount in South India from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries. By the end of the twelfth century, local chiefs began to grow in prominence, which weakened the centre.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Weak rulers:\u00a0<\/strong>Rulers after\u00a0<strong>Kulothunga I<\/strong>\u00a0were weak and could not maintain the huge empire of Cholas.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Frequent invasions:<\/strong>\u00a0Invasions of Pandyas weakened the Cholas with fragmented territories.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>In 1264, the Pandyan ruler,<strong>\u00a0Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I<\/strong>, sacked the Chola\u2019s capital of Gangaikonda Chozhapuram.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>The Chola dynasty ended when\u00a0<strong>King Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I\u00a0<\/strong>defeated the last king Rajendra Chola III in 1279 AD and established the rule by Pandyas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p><strong>Kanchipuram\u00a0<\/strong>was lost to the\u00a0<strong>Telugu Cholas<\/strong>, while the remaining Chola territories were lost to the Pandyan king.<\/p>\r\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse;width: 100%;height: 200px\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 25px\">\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" style=\"width: 100%;text-align: center;height: 25px\" colspan=\"2\"><strong>Other Related Posts<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 25px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%;text-align: center;height: 25px\"><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/indus-valley-civilization-art-and-architecture\/\" target=\"_blank\"><strong>Art and Architecture of IVC<\/strong><\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%;text-align: center;height: 25px\"><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/gupta-art-and-architecture\/\" target=\"_blank\"><strong>Gupta Art and Architecture<\/strong><\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 25px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%;text-align: center;height: 25px\"><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/mauryan-art-and-architecture\/\" target=\"_blank\"><strong>Mauryan Art and 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style.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":8176,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[173],"tags":[673,40],"class_list":{"0":"post-3593","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-quest-level-3","8":"tag-imperial-cholas","9":"tag-quest"},"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3593","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/6"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3593"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3593\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":19686,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3593\/revisions\/19686"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/8176"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3593"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3593"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3593"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}