{"id":3861,"date":"2026-01-02T09:26:42","date_gmt":"2026-01-02T03:56:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/?p=3861"},"modified":"2026-01-03T15:53:09","modified_gmt":"2026-01-03T10:23:09","slug":"jain-literature","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/jain-literature\/","title":{"rendered":"Jain Literature"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>Lord Mahavir's preachings were orally and methodically compiled by his immediate disciples, known as the\u00a0<strong>Ganadharas,<\/strong>\u00a0and elder monks, known as<strong>\u00a0Srut-kevalis,<\/strong>\u00a0into many texts (scriptures). The sacred books of the Jain religion are known as\u00a0<strong>Jain Agam or Agam Sutras.\u00a0<\/strong>They are said to be originally compiled by the Ganadharas, the Chief Disciples of Mahavira. They can be broadly divided into two major categories: Canonical or religious texts called Jain Agamas or Agam and Non-canonical literary works.<\/p>\r\n<p>Apart from writing in\u00a0<strong>Prakrit\u00a0<\/strong>and<strong>\u00a0Ardha Magadhi<\/strong>, Jain monks wrote in many other languages, depending on the era, region, and patrons who supported them. During the\u00a0<strong>Sangam period<\/strong>\u00a0in South India, they wrote in Tamil. They also used\u00a0<strong>Sanskrit<\/strong>,\u00a0<strong>Shauraseni<\/strong>,\u00a0<strong>Gujarati<\/strong>, and\u00a0<strong>Marathi\u00a0<\/strong>to write.<\/p>\r\n<h2>Evolution of Jain Literature<\/h2>\r\n<p>Tirthankaras taught in a divine preaching hall called S<strong>amavasarana<\/strong>, which ascetics and laypersons heard.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>These discourses were called<strong>\u00a0Shrut Jnana<\/strong>\u00a0and always comprised eleven angas and fourteen purvas.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>According to Jain tradition, the divine Shrut Jnana of a Tirthankara is then converted into<strong>\u00a0Sutta<\/strong>\u00a0by his disciples, and from such suttas emerge the formal canons.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Tattavartha Sutra:<\/strong>\u00a0Jain texts were written by<strong>\u00a0Umaswami in Sanskrit<\/strong>.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>One of its sutras,\u00a0<strong>Parasparopagraho Jivanam,<\/strong>\u00a0is the motto of\u00a0<strong>Jainism<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>It is accepted as authoritative in<strong>\u00a0both Svetambara and Digambara.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Types of Jain Literature<\/h2>\r\n<p>The Jain literature is classified into two major categories:<strong>\u00a0Digambara and Svetambara.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<h3>Svetambara Siddhanta<\/h3>\r\n<p>According to Svetambara tradition, the agamas were composed in the<strong>\u00a0first Jain council<\/strong>\u00a0(300 BC) at Patliputra.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>The canons of Svetambara are composed of<strong>\u00a0twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Prakirnakas, four Mulasutras, six Chedasutras, and two Chulika sutras.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Acharanga Sutra:\u00a0<\/strong>It is the first of twelve angas compiled based on the teachings of\u00a0<strong>Mahavira.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>It was recompiled and edited<strong>\u00a0by KshamaShraman Devardhigani.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" colspan=\"3\"><strong>Siddhanta of Svetambaras<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Twelve Angas:\u00a0<\/strong>(The Angas treat the life of the monks and are mostly made up of sermons on various themes of importance to the Jains).<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Acaranga<\/p>\r\n<p>- Sutrakratnga<\/p>\r\n<p>- Samvayanga<\/p>\r\n<p>- Thananga<\/p>\r\n<p>- Bhagavati<\/p>\r\n<p>- Jnatadharmkatha<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Upasakadasa<\/p>\r\n<p>- Antakritdasa<\/p>\r\n<p>- Anuttaraupapatikadasa<\/p>\r\n<p>- Prasna Vyakarana<\/p>\r\n<p>- Vipaka Sutra<\/p>\r\n<p>- Dristivada (The 12th agnga is lost.)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Twelve Upangas:\u00a0<\/strong>(They are based on the Angas and are by the seers).<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Uvavaiya-sutta<\/p>\r\n<p>- Raya-pasenaijja<\/p>\r\n<p>- Jivajivabhigama<\/p>\r\n<p>- Pannavana<\/p>\r\n<p>- Suriya-pannatti<\/p>\r\n<p>- Jambudvipa-pannatti<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Canda-pannatti<\/p>\r\n<p>- Nirayavaliyao or Kappiya<\/p>\r\n<p>- Kappavadamsiao<\/p>\r\n<p>- Pupphaio<\/p>\r\n<p>- Puppha-culiao<\/p>\r\n<p>- Vanhi-dasao<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Six Chedasutras\u00a0<\/strong>(text related to the behaviour of monks and nuns)<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Biha Kappa<\/p>\r\n<p>- Vavahara<\/p>\r\n<p>- Ayara-dasao<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Nisiha<\/p>\r\n<p>- Jiya-kappa<\/p>\r\n<p>- Maha-nisiha<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Four Mulasutras\u00a0<\/strong>(these texts provide a base in the earlier stages of monkhood)<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Dasaveyaliya-sutta<\/p>\r\n<p>- Avassaya-sutta<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Uttarajjhayana-sutta<\/p>\r\n<p>- Pinda-nijjutti and Ogha-nijutti<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Two Culikkasutras\u00a0<\/strong>(enhance or decorate the meanings of Angas)<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Nandi-sutra<\/p>\r\n<p>- Anuyogadvara-sutra<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h3>Svetambara Texts<\/h3>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\"><strong>Author<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\"><strong>Text description<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Hemachandra<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Yogasastra:\u00a0<\/strong>It is a treatise on the rules of conduct for laypeople and ascetics.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Language:<\/strong>\u00a0Sanskrit<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Salakapurusa<\/strong>: The 63 illustrious beings who appear during each half-time cycle.<\/p>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Parishishtaparvan<\/strong>: Details the history of the earliest Jain teachers.<\/p>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Arhanniti:<\/strong>\u00a0It is work on politics from a Jain perspective.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Shubhacandra<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>-\u00a0<strong>Jnanarnava, or Yogapradipadhikara,<\/strong>\u00a0is a\u00a0<strong>Sanskrit<\/strong>\u00a0text on various topics, primarily focusing on\u00a0<strong>meditation.<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h3>Digambara Siddhanta<\/h3>\r\n<p>The Digambara canon, or Siddhanta, comprises numerous texts. Two are believed to be all that remains of the<strong>\u00a0original Purvas,<\/strong>\u00a0composed in the 2nd to 3rd centuries.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>The two oldest scriptures are the holiest because they contain elements of the<strong>\u00a0Purvas<\/strong>\u00a0created by Mahavira\u2019s chief disciples that captured and shaped his teachings.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Both the<strong>\u00a0Shatkhandagama<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>Kasayapahuda\u00a0<\/strong>are highly technical works on karma.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" colspan=\"2\"><strong>Main texts of Digambara Siddhanta<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Shatkhandagama\u00a0<\/strong>(Scripture in Six Parts)<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Author:<\/strong>\u00a0Pushpadanta and Bhutabali<\/p>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Language:<\/strong>\u00a0Prakrit<\/p>\r\n<p>- The Shatkhandagama, the<strong>\u00a0first agama,<\/strong>\u00a0is also known as<strong>\u00a0Prathama Sruta-Skandha.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p>- It is a comprehensive treatise on\u00a0<strong>Karmakarma theory<\/strong>, including calculations and subdivisions.<\/p>\r\n<p>- Dealing with\u00a0<strong>karma\u00a0<\/strong>and its connection to the soul, as well as the nature of karma.<\/p>\r\n<p>- Written in concise prose, primarily in an\u00a0<strong>aphoristic style<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n<p>- It is highly technical and widely regarded as being intended only for specialists.<\/p>\r\n<p>- It is a scripture in\u00a0<strong>six parts:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Jiva Sthana<\/strong>\u00a0(Categories of living beings)<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Kshudraka\u00a0<\/strong>Bandha (Minutiae of Bondage)<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Bandhasvamitva\u00a0<\/strong>(Ownership of Bondage)<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Vedana\u00a0<\/strong>(Perception)<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Maha bandha\u00a0<\/strong>(Great bondage)<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Vargana\u00a0<\/strong>(Divisions of Karmas)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong>Kasayapahuda or Kasayapranhrta<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p>(Treatise on Passions)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Compiled by<\/strong>\u00a0the monk\u00a0<strong>Gu\u1e47abhadra\u00a0<\/strong>in the 2nd to 3rd century AD.<\/p>\r\n<p>- The Kasaya-prabh\u1e5bta is written in\u00a0<strong>180 verses.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p>- Virasena started writing Kasayapahudain Prakrit and Sanskrit. But Jinasena finished it in 820 AD.<\/p>\r\n<p>- It is also based on the\u00a0<strong>Purvas<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n<p>- It deals with the passions \u2013\u00a0<strong>kasayas\u00a0<\/strong>\u2013 or attachments to things of the world.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>These passions are the result of the deluding karma \u2013\u00a0<strong>mohaniya-karma<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Anuyogas (Expositions)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>- Anuyogas were composed between the 2nd and 11th centuries AD.<\/p>\r\n<p>-<strong>\u00a0Language:<\/strong>\u00a0Either in\u00a0<strong>Jaina Sauraseni (a variety of Prakrit) or in Sanskrit.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p>- They are grouped into\u00a0<strong>four categories,<\/strong>\u00a0representing various fields of knowledge and learning.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Pratham-anuyoga<\/strong>\u00a0(Religious stories)<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Charn-anuyoga<\/strong>\u00a0(conduct)<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Karan-anuyoga<\/strong>\u00a0(Mathematics)<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Dravy-anuyoga\u00a0<\/strong>(Philosophy)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Pratham-anuyoga:<\/strong>\u00a0Jain epics presenting Digambara versions of:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Ramayana<\/strong>: For example, Padma-Purana by Ravisena (7th century).<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Mahabharata<\/strong>: For instance, Jinasena\u2019s Harivamsa Purana (8th century).<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Jain universal history<\/strong>\u00a0(Maha-Purana) comprises:\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Jinasena\u2019s 8th-century\u00a0<strong>Adi-Purana<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>Gu\u1e47abhadra\u2019s 9th-century\u00a0<strong>Uttara-Purana<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h3>Digambara texts<\/h3>\r\n<figure>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" colspan=\"2\"><strong>Digambara texts<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Author<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Text description<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Acharya Bhadrabahu<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Kalpa-sutra:<\/strong>\u00a0Contains biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably<strong>\u00a0Parsavanatha and Mahavira.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>His other works<\/strong>\u00a0include four Chedda sutras, Bhadrabahu Samhita and Vasudevcharita.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Acharya Jinaratna<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>-\u00a0<strong>Lilavatisara<\/strong>: It tells the stories of the lives of a group of souls as they pass through a series of embodiments on their way to\u00a0<strong>final liberation<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Acharya Kundakunda<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Samayasara:\u00a0<\/strong>It expounds the Jain concepts like\u00a0<strong>Karma, Asrava, Bandha, and Moksha.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Niyamsara<\/strong>: It expounds on the path to liberation.<\/p>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Pravachanasara<\/strong>\u00a0deals with correct ascetic and spiritual behaviour based on his dualism.<\/p>\r\n<p>- All the texts mentioned above are in\u00a0<strong>Prakrit.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Samantabhadra Swamy<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Ratnakaranda sravakacara:<\/strong>\u00a0Discusses the conduct of<strong>\u00a0Sravaka.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Language:\u00a0<\/strong>Sanskrit<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Pujyapada<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p>-\u00a0<strong>Sarvarthasiddhi:\u00a0<\/strong>oldest commentary on the\u00a0<strong>Tattvartha Sutra.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Language:<\/strong>\u00a0Sanskrit<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Jinasena<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\r\n<p><strong>- Trishasthilkshana Mahapurana:\u00a0<\/strong>Composed during the rule of Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Its first part<strong>\u00a0(Adi Purana)\u00a0<\/strong>\u00a0is written by\u00a0<strong>Jinasena in Sanskrit.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n\t<li>The second part is\u00a0<strong>Uttara Purana,<\/strong>\u00a0which Gunabhadra writes<strong>\u00a0in Apabhramsa.<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse;width: 100%\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"tb-color\" style=\"width: 100%;text-align: center\" colspan=\"2\"><strong>Other Related Articles<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 52.4575%;text-align: center\"><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/indus-script\/\" target=\"_blank\">Indus Script<\/a><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 47.5425%;text-align: center\"><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/jain-literature\/\" 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They can be broadly divided into two major categories i.e., Jain Agamas and Non-canonical literary works.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":17614,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[173],"tags":[575,40],"class_list":{"0":"post-3861","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-quest-level-3","8":"tag-jain-literature","9":"tag-quest"},"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3861","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/6"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3861"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3861\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":19716,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3861\/revisions\/19716"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/17614"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3861"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3861"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vajiramandravi.com\/upsc-exam\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3861"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}