Revolutionary Movements in India - Factors, Ideology, Movements

The revolutionary movement in India emerged in the early 20th Century as a radical aspect of India’s struggle for freedom. The revolutionary movement in India can be divided into two phases, namely, the early revolutionary movements ( before World War I) and the later revolutionary movements(after World War I). With the aim to overthrow the alien British rule and to establish self-government, the early revolutionary activists were inspired by the unification of Italy and the militant nationalism of Extremists in Congress. They adopted the path of violence through individual heroic actions to strike fear among the British officers. 

Discontent with the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement and Gandhian method, there was a rise of a new type of revolutionary movement in the 1920s. Those later revolutionary activists were inspired by the socialist and marxist ideology.

Early Revolutionary Movements in India

Due to the Bengal Partition and the Swadeshi Movement in the early 20th century, Bengal emerged as the primary centre of political activities. Knowing the true nature of British rule, and inspired by many events inside and outside of India, the younger generation of nationalists became frustrated with the methods of Congress and formed their own secret societies like Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar. They recruited and trained many young men to adopt violent methods of individual actions. 

Factors Responsible for the Early Revolutionary Movements in India

The first phase can be attributed to several key factors that fuеlеd the growth of early revolutionary activities. These includes:

• Anger against British Repression:
• They understood that the true nature of British rule was exploitation and that India would not advance economically unless British imperialism was replaced by self-rule.
• Poor handling of the famines that devastated India from 1896 to 1900 fueled this anger. 
• The exploitative nature of colonial rule was further manifested by Lord Curzon’s policies.
• The repression of Indians during the Swadeshi movement also angered the nationalists. 
• International Influences: Global events, such as the defeat of Italy by Ethiopia in 1896 and the defeat of Russia by Japan in 1905, shattered the propaganda of European invincibility.
• Dissatisfaction with Moderates: The nationalists were more influenced by the Extremists of Congress and were dissatisfied with the Moderates' methods and achievements.
• Impatience with Extremists: Although inspired by the extremists, the nationalists were growing impatient with the inability of the extremists to get immediate concessions from the British and achieve full-scale mass mobilisation. 

Ideology and Methodology of the Early Revolutionary Movements

The idеology of еarly rеvolutionary activities in India was characterised by a blеnd of nationalism, anti-colonialism, and radicalism. The actions, writings, and speeches of the revolutionaries during this time period demonstrate romanticism and emotionalism.

• Objectives: 
  • to strike terror among the British officials, 
  • to remove the fear and inertia of the people,
  • to arouse nationalist consciousness among Indians.
• Methods: 
  • Individual heroic actions such as organising assassinations of unpopular officials as well as traitors and informers among the revolutionaries themselves.
  • Conducting swadeshi dacoities to raise funds for revolutionary activities and 
  • Organising revolutionary conspiracies (during the World War I) with the expectation of assistance from Britain's enemies.

Revolutionary Movements Abroad 

Early rеvolutionary movеmеnts abroad involvеd Indian nationalists and activists rallying beyond India's bordеrs to garnеr intеrnational support, build awarеnеss, and create solidarity with the strugglе for indеpеndеncе from British rule. These efforts aimed to unite the Indian diaspora and likе-mindеd individuals globally.

Later Revolutionary Movements

After the World War I, the younger generations of nationalists initially joined with the mass movement of Swaraj led by Gandhiji. But his methods and sudden withdrawal of the NCM frustrated these nationalists , and led them to start a new phase of revolutionary activities, ideologically based on socialist ideas with a secular outlook. 

Two broad strands of revolutionary activities developed in this phase: One in Punjab, U.P., Bihar and Central Provinces and the other in Bengal. Both strands came under the influence of new social and ideological forces such as socialism and Marxism. 

Factors Responsible for the Rise of later Revolutionary Movements 

There were several factors for the resurgence of such activities in the 1920s, some of which are given below: 

• Influence of international events: The early 20th century witnessed several global revolutionary movements, such as the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the Irish struggle for independence. 
  • The revolutionaries were significantly influenced by new ideas focusing on Marxism, socialism, and the proletariat.
• The influence of radical literature: The period saw the proliferation of radical literature, particularly through underground publications and pamphlets. 
  • Journals such as Atmasakti, Sarathi, and Bijoli published memoirs and articles extolling the self-sacrifice of revolutionaries.
• Socio-Ideological factors: 
  • Growth of socialist ideas and groups all over India: The Bolshevik revolution in the 1920s significantly influenced India's political landscape, drawing young leaders and intellectuals. For example, Communist movement in the 1920s.
  • Rise of a militant trade union movement: The trade union movement in the later years of the 1920s was metamorphosing into militant ideology, which was also a factor for evolutionary activities in these years.
• Discontent with the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement: The sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement by Mahatma Gandhi created confusion as well as discontent amongst the younger generation of nationalists, which were urged by Gandhi earlier to join their movement.
• Non-agreement with the congress ideologies: The objective of revolutionary activists was to achieve total independence instead of congress’ ideas of swaraj which was not clearly defined. 
  • They embraced the violent revolutionary path, believing in "ends justify means" instead of Gandhi's "means justify ends."

Revolutionary Movements in Punjab, UP, Bihar and Central Provinces

There was a rise in the new class of trade union workers after the First World War. The revolutionaries saw the revolutionary potentialities of the new class and desired to harness it into the nationalist revolution. With this objective, the revolutionaries of the U.P. and Punjab set in motion an organisation called the Hindustan Republican Association in 1924.

Revolutionary Movements in Bengal

In the early 1930s, Bengal became the centre of violent armed struggle, despite not having any proper organisation. These unrests ultimately met with brutal British repression.

Decline of Revolutionary Movements

In the 1930s, the revolutionary nationalist movement gradually faded. This was for several reasons. 

• The mainstream of the national movement, led by Gandhi, was opposed to violence.
• The government’s strong action also gradually decimated the revolutionary ranks.
  • The revolutionary movement in northern India came to an end with the death of Chandrashekar Azad.
• Surya Sen’s martyrdom marked the virtual collapse of revolutionary nationalism in Bengal. 
• Revolutionaries in jail or on the Andaman Islands began a serious rethinking of their politics. Many of them converted to Marxism, as Bhagat Singh and many of his comrades had done in the 1920s. 
• Convergence in Mainstream politics: Many people joined the Communist Party, Congress Socialist Party, Revolutionary Socialist Party, and other left-wing parties and organisations. Others joined the Congress' Gandhian wing.

Significance of Revolutionary Movements

• Awakening of youth: It was instrumental in generating a surge of youth awareness, which was constructively harnessed by mass movements led by the Mahatma.
• Impact on subsequent movements: The revolutionary movements left a lasting impact on subsequent phases of the freedom struggle. 
  • The radical ideas, tactics, and ideologies espoused by the revolutionaries continued to influence future movements and leaders. 
• New Ideas: They promoted the new ideas of Socialism, Marxism, and secular philosophy. 
• Symbolic impact: The revolutionary movements created powerful symbols and martyrs that resonated with the Indian population. 
  • Figures like Bhagat Singh, Chandrasekhar Azad, and Surya Sen became iconic and immortalised in the collective memory of the freedom struggle. 
  • Their courage, sacrifice, and determination elevated their status to that of national heroes, serving as symbols of resistance and inspiring subsequent generations.