What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• What is White Phosphorus?
• Military uses of white phosphorus
• What are the harmful effects of white phosphorus?
• What is the use of white phosphorus munitions?
• What is the legal status of white phosphorus munitions?

Why in News?

A global human rights group has claimed that Israel used white phosphorus incendiary shells on homes in at least five towns and villages in conflict-affected southern Lebanon.

Human Rights Watch (HRW) reported no evidence of burn injuries from white phosphorus in Lebanon but noted possible respiratory damage. Human rights advocates argue that using these munitions in populated areas is a crime under international law. 

Israel claims it uses white phosphorus only as a smokescreen, not to target civilians.

In October 2023, Israel was accused of using white phosphorus in residential areas. This occurred shortly after clashes began between the Israeli military and Hezbollah along the southern Lebanon-Israel border, following the outbreak of the Israel-Hamas war on October 7.

What is White Phosphorus?

• White phosphorus is a pyrophoric that ignites when exposed to oxygen, producing thick, light smoke as well as intense 815-degree Celsius heat. 
  • Pyrophoric substances are those which ignite spontaneously or very quickly (under five minutes) when in contact with air.
• Under the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals, white phosphorus falls under “Pyrophoric solids, category 1”.
  • This category includes chemicals that catch fire spontaneously when exposed to air.
• White phosphorus emits a distinct garlic-like odour.

Military uses of white phosphorus

• White phosphorus is dispersed in artillery shells, bombs, and rockets. It can also be delivered via felt (textile) wedges soaked in the chemical.
• Its primary military use is as a smokescreen — used to hide troop movement on the ground. The smoke acts as a visual obscurant. 
• White phosphorus is also known to mess with infrared optics and weapons tracking systems, thus protecting forces from guided missiles.
• Munitions can either be ground-burst for more concentrated smoke, or air-burst in order to cover a larger area.
• White phosphorus can also be used as an incendiary weapon. 

What are the harmful effects of white phosphorus?

• Upon exposure, white phosphorus can cause severe burns, often down to the bone. 
• The burns are excruciatingly painful, difficult to heal, and susceptible to infections. 
• Particles of white phosphorus that remain lodged the body can reignite if in contact with air.
• Inhaling white phosphorus particles or smoke can cause respiratory damage and harm to internal organs. 
• Those who survive initial injuries often experience a lifetime of suffering — with impaired mobility and painful, horrific scars.
• White phosphorus can also devastate infrastructure and property, damage crops and kill livestock, with raging fires, especially in windy conditions.

What is the use of white phosphorus munitions?

• Irish nationalists in the late 19th century first used white phosphorus munitions, in a formulation that became known as “Fenian fire”.
  • Fenian was an umbrella term for the Irish nationalists.
• World War I saw extensive use of the chemical by the British and Commonwealth forces in phosphorus grenades, bombs, shells and rockets.
• These munitions have since been used in conflicts around the world, from the Normandy invasion in World War II to the US invasion of Iraq in 2004 and the long-drawn Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. 
• Most recently, Russia was accused of using white phosphorus bombs during the invasion of Ukraine last year.

What is the legal status of white phosphorus munitions?

• Use is regulated
  • White phosphorus munitions are not under a blanket ban, though their use is regulated under the International Humanitarian Laws.
• Not considered a chemical weapon
  • It is not considered a chemical weapon because its operational utility is primarily due to heat and smoke, rather than toxicity. 
  • Thus, its use is governed by the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW), specifically Protocol III, which deals with incendiary weapons. 
    • Palestine and Lebanon have joined Protocol III, while Israel has not ratified the protocol.
    • Incendiary weapons are weapons that use fire and heat to set fire to objects or cause burn or respiratory injury to people.
• Protocol III of CCW regulates the use of incendiary weapons
  • Protocol III prohibits the use of airdropped incendiary weapons in concentrations of civilians.
  • However, it has two significant loopholes.
  • First, it restricts some but not all use of ground-launched incendiary weapons where there are concentrations of civilians. 
  • Second, the protocol’s definition of incendiary weapons covers weapons that are primarily designed to set fire to and burn people.
    • It excludes multipurpose munitions such as those containing white phosphorus, which are considered to primarily be “smoking” agents.

Q.1. What is Human Rights Watch (HRW)?

Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international non-governmental organization headquartered in New York City that conducts research and advocacy on human rights..

Q.2. What are Pyrophoric solids?

Pyrophoric solids are solids that can ignite spontaneously in air within five minutes of coming into contact with it, even in small quantities. They are classified as Category 1 by HazCom 2012 and are considered highly hazardous.

Source: Rights group claims Israel has hit residential buildings with white phosphorous in Lebanon | HRW

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• What is Standard Model of Particle Physics?
• What is Dark Matter?
• MOND Theory: as an alternative to the dark matter

Why in News?

The findings of Cassini mission, which orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, provided an opportunity to test Milgromian dynamics (MOND) - an alternative theory to the dark matter.

What is Standard Model of Particle Physics?

• About
  • The Standard Model of particle physics is like a blueprint that explains what everything in the universe is made of and how these things interact.
• Basic Building Blocks
  • Particles: Everything around us is made up of tiny particles. The Standard Model identifies the fundamental particles, which are the smallest building blocks of matter.
  • Quarks and Leptons: There are two main families of particles:
  • Quarks: These combine to form protons and neutrons, which are found in the nucleus of an atom.
  • Leptons: The most famous lepton is the electron, which orbits the nucleus of an atom.
• Forces
  • Fundamental Forces: The Standard Model also explains how particles interact through four fundamental forces:
  • Electromagnetic Force: This force is responsible for electricity, magnetism, and light. It’s carried by particles called photons.
  • Weak Nuclear Force: This force is responsible for some types of radioactive decay and is carried by particles called W and Z bosons.
  • Strong Nuclear Force: This force holds the nucleus of an atom together, binding protons and neutrons. It’s carried by particles called gluons.
  • Gravity: While gravity is a fundamental force, it's not fully explained by the Standard Model. It's described separately by the theory of general relativity.
• Interactions
  • How They Work: Particles interact with each other by exchanging force-carrying particles. For example, when two electrons repel each other, they exchange photons.
• Higgs Boson
  • Mass: The Standard Model also includes the Higgs boson, a particle that gives other particles their mass through the Higgs field.
• Challenges
  • The Standard Model is incredibly successful in explaining the known particles and their interactions, but it doesn't include everything.
  • For example, the Higgs boson gives mass to quarks, charged leptons (like electrons), and the W and Z bosons. 
  • However, it is not yet known whether the Higgs boson also gives mass to neutrinos – ghostly particles that interact very rarely with other matter in the universe. 
  • Also, physicists understand that about 95 percent of the universe is not made of ordinary matter as we know it. 
  • Instead, much of the universe consists of dark matter and dark energy that do not fit into the Standard Model.

What is Dark Matter?

• Like ordinary matter, dark matter takes up space and holds mass. But it doesn’t reflect, absorb, or radiate light – at least not enough for us to detect yet.
• While scientists have measured that dark matter makes up about 27% of the cosmos, they’re not sure what it is.
  • Scientists believe there is something called dark matter that forms a huge, web-like structure throughout the universe. 
  • This structure acts like a gravitational framework, pulling most of the regular matter in the cosmos towards it. 
  • They’ve determined that dark matter isn’t composed of known particles of matter. The search for what makes up dark matter continues.

MOND Theory: as an alternative to the dark matter

• Background: Origin of MOND Theory
  • One of astrophysics' biggest mysteries is why galaxies rotate faster than Newton’s law of gravity predicts based on their visible matter. 
  • To explain this, the concept of dark matter was proposed. 
  • However, dark matter has never been observed directly, and it doesn't fit within the Standard Model of particle physics.
  • In order address this anomaly, an alternative theory known as Milgromian dynamics (MOND) was proposed by Israeli physicist Mordehai Milgrom in 1982.
• MOND Theory
  • MOND theory suggests that Newton's laws break down under very weak gravity, as at the edges of galaxies. 
  • MOND has had some success in predicting galaxy rotation without dark matter, but many of these successes can also be explained by dark matter while preserving Newton’s laws.
  • MOND affects gravity at low accelerations, not specific distances. 
  • Therefore, while MOND effects typically appear several thousand light years from a galaxy, they could become significant at much shorter distances, such as in the outer Solar System.
• MOND Theory cahllenged by Cassini mission
  • The Cassini mission, which orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, provided an opportunity to test MOND. 
  • Saturn orbits the Sun at 10 AU, and MOND predicts subtle deviations in Saturn's orbit due to the galaxy's gravity. 
  • Cassini measured the Earth-Saturn distance using radio pulses, but found no anomalies expected by MOND. 
  • Newton’s laws still hold for Saturn, putting the MOND theory in trouble.
• Further evidence against MOND
  • Further evidence against MOND comes from wide binary stars. 
  • A study found that MOND's prediction of faster orbits was incorrect, with a probability of being right equivalent to flipping heads 190 times in a row. 
  • Additionally, MOND fails to explain the narrow energy distribution and orbital inclinations of comets in the outer Solar System.
  • Newtonian gravity is preferred over MOND for distances below a light year. 
  • MOND also fails at larger scales, like galaxy clusters, where it provides too little gravity centrally and too much at the outskirts. Newtonian gravity with dark matter fits the data better.
• MOND is no longer seen as a viable alternative
  • Despite issues with the standard dark matter model, such as the universe’s expansion rate and cosmic structures, MOND is no longer seen as a viable alternative. 
  • Dark matter remains the prevailing explanation, though its nature might differ from current models, or gravity could be stronger on very large scales.

Q.1. What is Astronomical Unit (AU)?

An Astronomical Unit (AU) is a unit of measurement used to describe distances within our solar system. One Astronomical Unit is defined as the average distance from the Earth to the Sun. It is approximately 149,597,870.7 kilometers (about 92,955,807.3 miles).

Q.2. What is Cassini-Huygens?

Cassini-Huygens was a collaborative mission between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) designed to study Saturn, its rings, and its moons.

Source: With bad news from Cassini, is dark matter’s main rival theory dead? | NASA | Office of Science

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• What is the Special Category Status (SCS)?
• Why Bihar and AP Demanding SCS and its Feasibility?

Why in News?

• With the General Elections throwing up a fractured mandate, Nitish Kumar’s Janata Dal (United) and Chandrababu Naidu’s Telugu Desam Party are set to play a key role in government formation at the Centre.
• As a result, their past demands for special category status (SCS) for Bihar and Andhra Pradesh, respectively, are back in focus.

What is the Special Category Status (SCS)?

• Meaning: To be able to get the status, states have to fulfil the following requirements (based on Gadgil formula):
  • They need to have hilly and difficult terrain.
  • They need to have low population density and /or a sizable share of the tribal population.
  • They must be in a strategic location along borders with neighbouring countries.
  • They must be economically and infrastructurally backward.
  • They must have a non-viable nature of state finances.
• Evolution of the idea of SCS:
  • It was introduced in 1969 on the recommendations of the Fifth Finance Commission (chaired by Mahavir Tyagi) to benefit certain backward states.
    • At that time, this was provided to Assam, Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland.
  • The idea of SCS was first formalised in April 1969 when the Gadgil formula of fund allocation was cleared by the National Development Council (NDC).
    • On the basis of this formula, more states were given the SCS when they attained statehood.
    • These include Himachal Pradesh in 1970-71, Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura in 1971-72; Sikkim in 1975-76; Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram in 1986-87 and Uttarakhand in 2001-02.
• Which states have the SCS?
  • Currently, 11 states have the SCS in the country including Assam, Nagaland, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Uttarakhand, and Telangana.
  • Telangana, the newest state of India, is accorded the status as it was carved out of another state - Andhra Pradesh, which hit the state's finances.
  • Along with AP and Bihar, Odisha is another state demanding SCS.
• What benefits do states with SCS enjoy?
  • Benefits to these states included getting Central assistance of as much as 90% in the form of grants and 10% loan for centrally sponsored schemes.
    • For Non-SCS, the Normal Central Assistance was calculated as 30% grant and 70% loan.
  • SCSs were also provided Special Plan Assistance for projects of special importance to the state.
  • Further, unspent funds do not lapse at the end of the financial year.
  • They also get tax concessions although many tax benefits have now been subsumed under the goods and services tax regime.

Why Bihar and AP Demanding SCS and its Feasibility?

• Bihar:
  • Bihar has been asking for it ever since the mineral-rich Jharkhand was carved out of it back in 2000.
  • Bihar has been ranked as the poorest state in India, according to the Centre's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report.
  • It is estimated to have nearly 52% of its population, without having proper access to requisite health, education and living standards.
  • While the state meets most of the criteria for the SCS, it does not fulfil the criteria of hilly terrain and geographically difficult areas.
• AP:
  • After its bifurcation in 2014, the then UPA government at the Centre had promised to grant SCS to AP to compensate for the loss of revenue and of Hyderabad, where much of the development was concentrated.
  • Today’s AP is essentially an agrarian state, with low economic buoyancy, leading to huge revenue disabilities.
  • SCS would mean higher grants-in-aid to the state government from the Centre. To illustrate, per capita grants to SCSs is Rs 5,573 crore per year, whereas AP receives only Rs 3,428 crore.
• Feasibility:
  • According to the 14th Finance Commission, the SCS was a burden on the Centre’s resources and this has been used by the central government to reject SCS to more states.
  • In order to plug the resource gap without extending SCS, tax devolution to states has been raised to 42% as recommended by the 14th FC and has been maintained by the 15th FC (41%).
  • However, with the 16th FC already set up and working on the formula for tax devolution between the Centre and states for the five-year period starting April 1, 2026, granting special category status to these two states may be a simpler task.

Q.1. What is the National Development Council (NDC)?

The NDC is the apex body for decision making and deliberations on development matters in India, presided over by the PM. It was set up on 6 August 1952 to strengthen and mobilise the effort and resources of the nation in support of the Five-Year Plans.

Q.2. What is the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)?

Traditionally, poverty is calculated based either on income levels or on expenditure levels. Globally, the MPI uses 10 indicators covering three main areas: health, education, and standard of living. These three dimensions have one-third weight each in the final index.

Source: Special category status for Bihar and Andhra Pradesh: Past demands come back in the limelight | DH | IE

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in the News?
• About Tuberculosis (TB)
• Symptoms of TB
• Types of TB
• Treatment
• Tuberculosis in India
• Challenges Associated with TB Eradication in India
• Way Forward
• News Summary

Why in the News?

• A paper titled ‘Progress and challenges in achieving tuberculosis elimination in India by 2025: A systematic review and meta-analysis’ notes that India faces a daunting challenge in its fight against TB.

About Tuberculosis (TB)

• Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection spread through inhaling tiny droplets from the coughs or sneezes of an infected person.
• It mainly affects the lungs, but it can affect any part of the body, including the tummy (abdomen), glands, bones and nervous system.
• TB is a potentially serious condition, but it can be cured if it's treated with the right antibiotics.

Symptoms of TB

• Persistent cough that lasts more than 3 weeks and usually brings up phlegm, which may be bloody,
• Weight loss,
• Night sweats,
• High temperature,
• Tiredness and fatigue,
• Loss of appetite,
• Swellings in the neck.

Types of TB

• Pulmonary TB:
  • TB that affects the lungs (pulmonary TB) is the most contagious type, but it usually only spreads after prolonged exposure to someone with the illness.
  • In most healthy people, the body's natural defence against infection and illness (the immune system) kills the bacteria and there are no symptoms.
• Latent TB:
  • Sometimes the immune system cannot kill the bacteria, but manages to prevent it spreading in the body.
  • You will not have any symptoms, but the bacteria will remain in your body. This is known as latent TB.
  • People with latent TB are not infectious to others.
• Active TB:
• If the immune system fails to kill or contain the infection, it can spread within the lungs or other parts of the body and symptoms will develop within a few weeks or months. This is known as active TB.
  • About one-quarter of the world’s population is estimated to be infected by TB bacteria but out of these only 5-15% of people will fall ill with active TB disease.
• Latent TB could develop into an active TB disease at a later date, particularly if your immune system becomes weakened.

Treatment

• With treatment, TB can almost always be cured.
• A course of antibiotics will usually need to be taken for 6 -18 months.
• Several different antibiotics are used because some forms of TB are resistant to certain antibiotics.

Tuberculosis in India

• The total number of incident TB patients (new and relapse) notified during 2021 in India were 19.33 lakh as opposed to that of 16.28 lakh in 2020.
• In 2022, 24.22 lakh case s of TB were registered in the country.
• India continues to have the largest share of the global TB burden.
• India’s National TB Elimination Programme is strengthened to meet the goal of ending the TB epidemic by 2025 from the country, five years ahead of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for 2030.
• The National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination(2017-2025) was developed to achieve the goal.
• Though the National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination (2017-2025) outlined a paradigm shift in approach and strategy to achieve the ambitious goal, by 2020, it became clear that the NSP will not be able to meet these objectives.
• A new National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination (2020-2025) to end TB was launched.

Challenges Associated with TB Eradication in India

• Challenges with regard to this illness in India include –
  • Poor primary health-care and infrastructure in rural areas;
  • Unregulated private health care;
  • HIV induced TB cases;
  • Lack of hygiene facilities and widespread malnourishment and poverty.
• The main variables that help understand tuberculosis transmission are rapid unplanned urbanization, overcrowding, poor airborne infection control, poor nutrition, HIV, diabetes and tobacco use.

Way Forward

• Focus should be on understanding the key determinants like poverty, under- nutrition and tobacco smoking.
• This is so that prevention is the approach and not cure. In addition to this the gaps in the public healthcare system must be addressed as this is the main medium through which millions of Indians seek treatment.
• Although the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program has worked toward improving the diagnosis of patients with free tests, free TB drugs, extended adherence support to increase rates of TB treatment, completion and involvement of private healthcare providers, there is more that can be done.

News Summary

• A paper titled ‘Progress and challenges in achieving tuberculosis elimination in India by 2025: A systematic review and meta-analysis’ notes that India faces a daunting challenge in its fight against TB.
• The mortality rate, excluding HIV co-infected individuals, was approximately 450,000 in 2021, highlighting the severe impact of TB on the country’s public health landscape.
• The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) is looking at reworking the protocol, specifically TB medication and its duration.

The objective is to reboot the TB-free initiative with zero deaths, disease, and poverty resulting from the disease.