About Ratnagiri Site:

• Location: It is located 100 km northeast of Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
• The site stands on a hill between Birupa and Brahmani rivers and is Odisha’s most famous — and the most excavated Buddhist site.
• It is part of the famous Diamond Triangle of Odisha along with Udaygiri and Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri – translated as the ‘Hills of Jewels’
• Time Period: Experts date Ratnagiri to the 5th and 13th Century, although the peak period of construction is dated between the 7th and 10th centuries.
• It was a center for Mahayana and Tantrayana (also known as Vajrayana) Buddhism.
• There are some studies that suggest that the renowned Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited Odisha, during 638-639 AD.
• It was first documented as a historical site in 1905.
• So far ASI have unearthed a colossal Buddha head, a massive palm, an ancient wall and inscribed Buddhist relics, all of which are estimated to date back 8th and 9th Century AD.

Buddhism in Odisha and links with Southeast Asian countries

• In Odisha, Buddhism is stated to have particularly flourished under the Bhaumakara dynasty, which ruled parts of the state in between the 8th and 10th Century.
• Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is believed to have invaded Kalinga in 261 BC but, deeply moved by the bloodshed in the war, he eventually embraced Buddhism.
• Odisha has long enjoyed maritime and trade links with Southeast Asian countries: according to historians, pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, silk, camphor, gold, and jewellery were popular items of trade between the ancient kingdom of Kalinga and Southeast Asia.
• The state also annually holds Baliyatra, literally ‘voyage to Bali’ – a seven-day festival to commemorate the 2,000-year-old maritime and cultural links between Kalinga and Bali and other South and Southeast Asian regions such as Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

Q1: Who built the Ratnagiri Monastery?

Ratnagiri was likely established no later than the reign of the Gupta king Narasimha Baladitya in the first half of the sixth century, and flourished until the twelfth century.

Source: IE

About Antivenom: 

• Antivenoms, or antivenins, are life-saving medicines used to treat snake bites.
• Antivenoms are the frontline defence. They work by specifically binding to the venom toxins to render them ineffective, allowing the body’s natural defence systems to clear them safely over time.
• How lethal is Snake venom?
  • Snake venom is one of nature’s most lethal weapons, a complex cocktail of toxic proteins.
  • Haemotoxins destroy blood cells and disrupt clotting. Neurotoxins block nerve signals and paralyse. Cytotoxinsdissolve tissue at the bite site. The effects are often fatal without medical intervention.
• Productions of Antivenoms
  • French physician Albert Calmette in the 1890s developed the first antivenom using horses, a practice that continues today.
  • To produce antivenom, healthy and mature venomous snakes are first captured from the wild by trained experts who then “milk” the snakes to extract the venom.
  • Next, they immunise horses with increasing doses of venom over many weeks, allowing their immune systems to produce antibodies. 
  • Over time, the horses develop a robust immune response, producing antibodies that neutralise venom toxins.
  • They are produced by injecting small amounts of venom into animals, usually horses, which then produce antibodies as part of their immune response. These antibodies become antivenoms.
  • The experts extract these antibodies from the horse’s blood and purify and formulate them as antivenoms.
  • The antibodies thus produced are very specific to the type of toxins injected.
• Polyvalent antivenoms (PVAs) currently used in India target multiple species. However, their efficacy varies against less common snakes.
• Issues with Antivenoms in India
  • India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of antivenoms in the world.
  • However, access to timely medical care remains a significant challenge for many Indians.
  • Administration issue: Improper administration and inadequate facilities exacerbate the crisis. Logistical issues, unequal access to care, superstitious beliefs, and cultural practices often delay proper treatment in many parts.
  • Lack of Infrastructure: Antivenoms often need to be transported in cold storage, however, India’s rural parts lack the supporting infrastructure and power supply.
  • The high cost of manufacturing antivenom limits accessibility for the economically-disadvantaged.

Q1: What are the three types of snake poison?

There are three types of venom according to its effect viz. Haemotoxic, Cytotoxic & Neurotoxic. Haemo-toxic venoms are ones which affect the cardiovascular system, Cytotoxic venoms target specific cellular sites and Neuro-toxic venoms harm the nervous system of the human body.

Source: TH

About Diamond Imprest Authorisation (DIA) Scheme:

• It was introduced by the Department of Commerce, Government of India, to allow duty-free import of natural cut and polished diamonds for export purposes.
• The Scheme will be implemented with effect from 01.04.2025.
• Key Features of the Scheme:
  • This scheme allows the duty-free import of Natural Cut and Polished Diamonds, of less than ¼ Carat (25 Cents).
  • This scheme mandates export obligation with value addition of 10%.
  • All diamond exporters holding Two Star Export House status and above and having US $15 million exports per year are eligible for availing the benefit under this scheme.
• The scheme is made in response to the beneficiation policies undertaken in a number of natural diamond mining countries like Botswana, Namibia, Angola, etc, where diamond manufacturers are obliged to open cut and polishing facilities for a minimum percentage of value addition.
• Support for MSME Exporters: Designed to create a level playing field for MSMEs, the scheme enables smaller exporters to compete effectively with larger industry players.
• It is aimed towards retaining India’s position as a global leader in the entire value chain of the diamond industry.

Q1. What is a Diamond?

A diamond is a naturally occurring mineral composed of carbon atoms arranged in a crystal lattice structure known as a diamond cubic crystal system. This unique atomic arrangement makes diamonds the hardest known natural material, giving them exceptional physical properties such as extreme hardness, high thermal conductivity, and optical brilliance.

Source: TH

About Vaigai River:

• It is a river in Tamil Nadu.
• Course:
  • Origin: It originates from the Varusanadu and Megamalai hills of the Western Ghats. 
  • It travels through the Pandya Nadu region of Tamil Nadu generally in the south-east direction and rarely causes floods.
  • It drains into the Palk Strait near the Pamban Bridge in Ramanathapuram district.
  • Length: It is 258 kilometres long.
• It drains an area of 7,741 sq.km, which entirely lies in the state of Tamil Nadu.
• The river basin is flanked by the Western ghats on the south and west, the southern slope of Palani hills (Kodaikanal hills), Sirumalai hills, Alagar hills etc. on the north, and the Bay of Bengal on the east.
• Vaigai gets major feed from the Periyar Dam in Kerala. Water from the Periyar River in Kerala is diverted into the Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu via a tunnel through the Western Ghats.
• Tributaries: Its main tributaries are Suruliyaru, Mullaiyaru, Varaganadhi, Manjalaru, Kottagudi, Kridhumaal, and Upparu.
• The river finds a mention in Sangam literature dated to 300 before Common Era.
• It is the major river in the fabled city ofMadurai, the capital of the ancient and prosperous Pandya kingdom located in southern Tamil Nadu.
• The river fulfills the drinking water requirements of five districts in Tamil Nadu, namely, Theni, Madurai, Ramnathapuram, Sivagangai, and Dindigul.

Q1: Which dam is built on Vaigai River?

The Vaigai Dam is built on the Vaigai River. It is located near Andipatti in the Theni district of Tamil Nadu, India.It was built in 1959 and is often referred to as the lifeline of the region.

Source: TOI

About Pralay Missile:

• It is an indigenously developed short-range, quasi-ballistic surface-to-surface missile.
• It has been developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) based on the Prithvi Defence Vehicle from the Indian ballistic missile programme.
• It has been developed for deployment along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) and Line of Control (LoC).
• Features:
  • It is powered by a solid-propellant rocket motor.
  • The missile has a range of 150-500 km and can be launched from a mobile launcher.
  • It has a payload capacity of 500-1,000 kg.
  • The missile is capable of carrying conventional warheads.
  • It is equipped with guidance systems that provide a Circular Error Probable (CEP) of less than 10 meters.
  • The missile reaches terminal speeds of Mach 6.1 and can engage targets such as radar installations, command centers, and airstrips.
  • It has the ability to change its path after covering a certain range midair.

Q1: Which is the first ballistic missile of India?

The first ballistic missile developed by India is the Prithvi Missile. It was part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) initiated in 1983 under the leadership of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.

Source: IT

About Mount McKinley:

• It is the highest peak in North America.
• Location: It is located near the centre of the Alaska Range, with two summits rising above the Denali Fault, in south-central Alaska, U.S.
• The mountain is essentially a giant block of granite that was lifted above Earth’s crust during a period of tectonic activity that began about 60 million years ago.
• It rises abruptly some 18,000 feet (5,500 metres) from Denali Fault at its base to the higher, more southerly of its two summits.
• The upper half of the mountain is covered with permanent snowfields that feed many glaciers like Kahiltna Glacier, the Muldrow Glacier, the Peters Glacier, the Ruth Glacier, and the Traleika Glacier.
• It forms the central feature of the Denali National Park and Preserve.

Key facts about the Denali Fault

• It is located in southern Alaska, has played a crucial role in shaping Earth's geological history.
• A study reveals that three sites along the Denali Fault were once part of a single geologic feature, symbolizing the final joining of two landmasses millions of years ago.
• Over 483 km of horizontal movement along the fault tore apart this united feature due to millions of years of tectonic activity.
• These three locations once formed a terminal suture zone, indicating the last phase of tectonic plate integration into a larger mass.

Q1: Why is Denali or Mount McKinley so important?

Denali is one of the most striking features on the entire planet. At 20,310 feet, it is the crowning peak of the Alaska Range and the highest mountain on the continent. It towers three and one-half vertical miles above its base, making it a mile taller from base to summit than Mt. Everest.

Source: IE

About Asan Conservation Reserve (ACR):

• It is a 444-hectare stretch of the Asan River running down to its confluence with the Yamuna River in Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. 
  • The Asan River, unlike other rivers which flow north to south, flows in a west to east direction.
• It was declared as a Conservation Reserve in 2005 under Section 36A of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
• It is the first Ramsar site in Uttarakhand. 
• It is also listed as an Important Bird Area (BNHS and BirdLife International) and is popular for sightings of native and migratory birds. 
• Strategically located within the Central Asian Flyways (CAF), the reserve homes 330 species of birds, including critically endangered-white-rumped vulture, Baer's pochard; endangered-Egyptian vulture, steppe eagle, black-bellied tern; and vulnerable-marbled teal, common pochard, Indian spotted eagle, etc.
• Other non-avian species present include 49 fish species, one of these being the endangered Putitor mahseer. 

Q1: Who declares conservation reserves?

Conservation reserves in India are declared by the State Governments under the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

Source: IE

About National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC):

• Incorporated in 1958 as a Government of India fully owned public enterprise, NMDC is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Steel, Government of India.
• The company was categorised as "NAVRATNA" Public Sector Enterprise in 2008.
• The company is engaged in the exploration of a range of minerals, including iron ore, copper, rock phosphate, limestone, dolomite, gypsum, bentonite, magnesite, diamond, tin, tungsten, graphite, and beach sands.
• NMDC is India's single largest iron ore producer, presently producing over 45 million tonnes of iron ore from its fully mechanized mines in Bailadila Sector in Chhattisgarh and Donimalai in Bellary-Hospet region in Karnataka.
  • NMDC is considered to be one of the low-cost producers of iron ore in the world.
  • The company sells most of their high-grade iron ore production to the Indian domestic steel market, primarily pursuant to long-term sales contracts.
• It also operates the only mechanized diamond mine in India at Panna, Madhya Pradesh.
• All of the NMDC mining complexes have been rated 5 Star by the Indian Bureau of Mines, Ministry of Mines.
• The registered office is located in the city of Hyderabad, Telangana.

Q1: What is NMDC famous for?

Incorporated in 1958 as a Government of India public enterprise, NMDC is India's largest producer of iron ore.

Source: TH

About Oyster:

• Oysters are marine animals belonging to the phylum Mollusca found in brackish habitats.
• Appearance: They are very irregular in shape and the valves of some are highly calcified.
• Characteristics
  • These marine animals can filter up to 1.3 gallons of water per hour.
  • Oysters are animals with eyes all over their body. These eyes help them escape their predators.
  • Shell-hiding: These creatures are known to hide in their shell upon sensing danger. The shells then close tightly to protect them.
  • These animals do not have a central nervous system. Therefore, they cannot feel pain like humans.
  • Diet: They are animals that eat algae and other food particles that are usually drawn to their gills.
  • Reproduction: They are known to reproduce through broadcast spawning in warm waters and are also capable of changing their gender.

Key points about research

• Oysters are exposed to high concentrations of diverse microorganisms in their natural marine environment. Because of this, they have evolved strong immune defenses.
  • For example, they rely heavily on antimicrobial proteins and strings of molecules known as peptides in their hemolymph (blood) to protect them from infection.
• The study showed that the antimicrobial proteins isolated from the oyster hemolymph (the equivalent of blood) can kill certain bacteria responsible for a range of infections.
• The proteins can also improve the efficacy of conventional antibiotics against problematic bacteria species.

Q1: Are oysters found in India?

Small oyster beds exist in Kerala and Karnataka, but little exploitation occurs. Along the east coast, exploitation concentrates in the backwaters of Orissa, in Gokulapalli (Andhra Pradesh) and in Courtallayar and Adyar estuaries and Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu).

Source: PHYS