Megaliths Latest News

Ancient relics estimated to be 2,000 years old, belonging to the Megalithic Period, were recently unearthed at Manimoola village in Bandadukka, Kerala.

What Are Megaliths?

• A Megalith is a large stone used in the construction of prehistoric monuments, either alone or with other stones.
• They were constructed for:
  • Burial purposes (sepulchral)
  • Commemorative rituals (non-sepulchral)
• Most Indian Megaliths date to the Iron Age: 1500 BCE to 500 BCE
• Some megalithic sites even precede the Iron Age, extending back to 2000 BCE

Types of Megalithic Monuments

• Burial Types:
  • Dolmenoid cists – box-shaped stone burial chambers
  • Cairn circles – circular arrangements of stones marking burial spots
  • Capstones – mushroom-shaped stones mostly found in Kerala
  • Urns or Sarcophagi – made of terracotta, often used for cremated remains
• Non-burial Types:
  • Menhirs – upright memorial stones, typically not used for burials

Major Megalithic Sites in India

Artefacts Recovered from the Site

• These artefacts were found during excavation under the Jal Jeevan Mission, which involved digging trenches for water pipelines.
• Key items recovered include: A black ware pot, five four-legged jars, Pots of different sizes, Clay utensils that resembled lids of large vessels, an iron stove stand with three support stones and Iron tools resembling penknives
• Megalithic Structures Identified Nearby
• A local stone monument called Pathaya Kallu is believed to be a Megalithic-era burial site.
• Similar stone burial chambers in the region are known by folk names such as: Pandava Guha, Peerangi Guha, Muniyara, Swamikundu and Kalpatthayam.

Megaliths FAQs

Q1. What are megaliths?

Ans. Megaliths are large stone structures or monuments constructed during prehistoric times, often used as burial sites or for ceremonial purposes.

Q2. Where are megalithic sites commonly found in India?

Ans. Megalithic sites are prevalent in South India, particularly in states like Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, but they are also found in other regions across the country.

Q3. What time period do the Indian megaliths belong to?

Ans. Indian megaliths mainly belong to the Iron Age (1500 BC–500 BC), with some sites dating back to the Chalcolithic period.

Q4. What types of megalithic structures are found in India?

Ans. Common types include dolmens (stone tables), cairn circles (stone circles), menhirs (single standing stones), and stone cists (stone-lined burial chambers).

Source: TH

Topological Materials Latest News

The United Nations has declared 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology, marking 100 years since quantum theory began to revolutionise science.

What are Topological Materials?

• Topological materials are substances that exhibit different physical properties on their surface and in their interior.
• These materials may behave like a metal on the outside (conducting electricity) but like an insulator on the inside (not conducting electricity).
• The term "topological" refers to the unique geometric and quantum properties of the material, which remain unchanged even if the shape of the material is distorted.
• Discovered in the latter half of the 20th century, these materials represent a new class of quantum matter.
• Nobel Prize in Physics (2016) was awarded to scientists (David Thouless, Duncan Haldane, and Michael Kosterlitz) for their theoretical discoveries in this field.

How Do They Work?

• These materials exhibit a metallic surface (conducting electrons freely) while maintaining an insulating core (electrons remain localized).
• This strange duality arises from quantum mechanical effects, especially the topology of electronic band structures.
• The behaviour is deeply rooted in the principles of quantum mechanics, where electron spin and momentum interplay due to a phenomenon called spin-orbit coupling.
• The interaction of light and matter, the collective behavior of electrons, and phase transitions are governed by quantum principles.
• The UN declared 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology, marking 100 years since the foundation of quantum mechanics.

Mirror Analogy

• A mirror appears to be a single object, but it has two materials:
  • A glass front (an insulator that lets light through)
  • A thin metallic back (a conductor that reflects light)
• This setup makes it possible to see your reflection clearly, as the metal reflects light that passed through the glass.

Why Do Metals and Insulators Differ?

• In metals, electrons are free to move — like a soup of charge, allowing conduction of electricity and heat.
• In insulators, electrons are bound tightly to their atoms and do not move freely, hence they do not conduct electricity.
• When light (an electromagnetic wave) hits these materials:
  • In metals, electrons move collectively and reflect light.
  • In insulators, electrons move individually, allowing light to pass through.

Topological Materials FAQs

Q1. What are Topological Materials?
Ans. These are quantum materials that conduct electricity on their surface or edges while remaining insulators internally.

Q2. Why are Topological Materials significant?
Ans. They are key to next-gen electronics, quantum computing, and low-power devices due to their unique electronic properties.

Q3. What is an example of a topological material?
Ans. Topological insulators like bismuth selenide (Bi₂Se₃) are well-known examples.

Source: TH

INS Varsha Latest News

India is preparing to operationalise INS Varsha, a dedicated naval base for nuclear-powered submarines, on the eastern coast near Rambilli in Andhra Pradesh by 2026.

About INS Varsha

• It is a strategically designed submarine base to house India's nuclear-powered submarines, both ballistic missile (SSBNs) and attack (SSNs) variants.
• The high-security facility, part of the long-planned Project Varsha, is designed to support India’s growing fleet of nuclear submarines and enhance the survivability of its sea-based deterrent.
• The new base will be located near the coastal village of Rambilli, approximately 50 kilometers from Eastern Naval Command headquarters in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
• It will feature underground pens and tunnels to house nuclear submarines, ensuring stealthy operations in the Bay of Bengal.
• The project covers an area of 20 square kilometers and will accommodate at least 10 nuclear submarines.
• Similar to China’s extensive nuclear submarine base at Hainan Island, the water depth at Rambilli will enable submarines to enter and exit the base without being spotted by satellites. 
• This level of stealth is vital for SSBNs (nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines), which need to remain hidden during their long patrols, often carrying nuclear-armed missiles.

INS Varsha FAQs

Q1. What is the primary purpose of INS Varsha?

Ans. To house India's nuclear-powered submarines

Q2. Where is INS Varsha located?

Ans. Near the coastal village of Rambilli, Andhra Pradesh

Q3. What type of submarines will be housed at INS Varsha?

Ans. Nuclear-powered submarines

Source: SWARAJ

POEM-4 Latest News

Recently, POEM-4 re-entered the Earth's atmosphere and impacted the Indian Ocean, as monitored by ISRO’s IS4OM (System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management).

What is POEM-4?

• POEM-4, or PSLV Orbital Experiment Module-4, is a space research platform developed by ISRO that utilizes the spent fourth stage (PS4) of the PSLV rocket as an orbiting experimental module in space.
• It is part of the SpaDeX (Space Docking Experiment) mission and represents the fourth deployment of the POEM series, following POEM-3.
• POEM-4 has a three times larger payload capacity than its predecessor, POEM-3, marking a major advancement in reusing upper rocket stages for scientific research.
• Total of 24 payloads were hosted on POEM-4: 14 payloads from ISRO and 10 payloads from non-government entities (NGEs) including start-ups and academic institutions
• Notable payloads include:
  • Walking Robotic Arm (RRM-TD): A robotic manipulator capable of inchworm-like motion, aimed at enabling inspection and servicing tasks in space.
  • Debris Capture Robotic Manipulator: Developed by Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), this innovation assists in space debris collection and manipulation, aligning with global efforts in space clean-up.
  • Gradient Control Reaction Wheel Assembly (RWA): Designed by ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU), this system enhances attitude control and stabilization of the POEM platform using reaction wheels.

Launch and Mission Details

• POEM-4 was launched on December 30, 2024, aboard PSLV-C60, which also carried twin SPADEX satellites to a 475 km altitude.
• After satellite deployment, the PS4 upper stage was reconfigured as POEM-4 and continued in a nearby orbit, serving as an experimental platform.
• POEM-4 was then de-orbited by restarting its engine and brought to a circular orbit at 350 km altitude with a 55.2° inclination.
• The stage was passivated (leftover fuel vented) to prevent accidental break-up and ensure safe operations in orbit.

POEM-4 FAQs

Q1. What is POEM-4?
Ans. POEM-4 (PSLV Orbital Experimental Module) refers to the use of the spent fourth stage of ISRO's PSLV-C60 rocket as an orbital platform for conducting scientific experiments in space.

Q2. What were the objectives of the POEM-4 mission?

Ans. The mission aimed to conduct various scientific experiments, including the germination of cowpea seeds in microgravity and the operation of India's first space robotic arm.

Q3. When was POEM-4 launched?

Ans. POEM-4 was launched on December 30, 2024, as part of the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) mission. 

Source: TH

CAPTCHA Latest News

CAPTCHA is a crucial security tool to verify human users and protect websites from bots, but faces challenges.

About CAPTCHA

• CAPTCHA stands for the Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart. 
• The term “Turing test” is central to CAPTCHAs. 
  • A Turing test evaluates a computer’s capacity to simulate human behavior. 
  • In 1950, Alan Turing, an early pioneer of computing and artificial intelligence (AI), created the Turing test. 
  • A computer program “passes” the Turing test if its actions throughout the test cannot be distinguished from that of a person, i.e., if it behaves as a human would. 
  • A Turing test is not based on answering questions correctly; rather, it is concerned with how “human” the responses seem, irrespective of whether they are accurate.
• CAPTCHAs are tools you can use to differentiate between real users and automated users, such as bots. 
• CAPTCHAs provide challenges that are difficult for computers to perform but relatively easy for humans. 
• For example, a CAPTCHA may ask the user to enter the characters displayed in a blurred image or identify all of the images in a grid that contain a traffic light. 
• Some newer CAPTCHAs ask the user to click in a box stating that they are not a robot and use various metrics to differentiate between human and automated visitors.
• CAPTCHAs are used by any website that wishes to restrict usage by bots.

CAPTCHA FAQs

Q1. What does CAPTCHA stand for?

Ans. Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart

Q2. What is the main purpose of CAPTCHA?

Ans. To distinguish humans from automated bots

Q3. CAPTCHAs are based on which fundamental computer science concept?

Ans. Turing test

Source: TH

Mount Kanlaon Latest News

A dramatic eruption of Mount Kanlaon, one of the Philippines' most active volcanoes, sent a towering ash plume 4,000 meters (2.5 miles) into the sky recently.

About Mount Kanlaon

• It is a stratovolcano in the north-central part of the island of Negros., Philippines. 
• It is the highest mountain on the island of Negros and the 42nd tallest peak on an island in the world.
• It is one of the active volcanoes in the Philippines and part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.
• The volcano comprises a number of pyroclastic cones and craters.
• The summit of Canlaon contains a broad, elongated northern caldera with a crater lake and a smaller, but higher, historically active crater to the south. 
• The base of Kanlaon covers an area of 30 km x 14 km. 
• It is underlain by tropical volcanic materials composed of sheeted lava flows, lahar deposits, airfall tephra, and apron pyroclastic materials.
• It is biologically diverse; and home to a number of species of flora and fauna.
• The slopes are also headwater catchments of major river systems on the entire Negros Island.
• Historical eruptions, recorded since 1866, have typically consisted of phreatic explosions of small-to-moderate size that produce minor ashfalls near the volcano.

Mount Kanlaon FAQs

Q1. Where is Mount Kanlaon located?

Ans. Mount Kanlaon is located on Negros Island in the Philippines.

Q2. Is Mount Kanlaon a shield volcano?

Ans. No, Mount Kanlaon is not a shield volcano. It is a stratovolcano.

Q3. What is the biggest volcano in the Philippines?

Ans. The biggest volcano in the Philippines in terms of height is Mount Apo.

Source: RW

Mesopotamia Latest News

Researchers recently discovered an extensive and remarkably well-preserved system of ancient irrigation canals in the Eridu region of southern Mesopotamia, offering fresh insights into early agricultural practices.

About Mesopotamia

• Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as the Middle East, which includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
• It is part of the Fertile Crescent, an area also known as the “Cradle of Civilization” for the number of innovations that arose from the early societies in this region, which are among some of the earliest known human civilizations on earth.
• The word “mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river. 
• Situated in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey, and Syria.
• It was home to the ancient civilizations of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia.
• It was one of the first places where humans started practicing settled agriculture, and the earliest known writing system, cuneiform, originated there as well. 
• For some three thousand years, Mesopotamia remained the preeminent force in the Near East. 
• Decline: 
  • In 539 BC, however, Cyrus the Great captured Babylon and incorporated Mesopotamia into the Persian Empire. 
  • Periods of Greek and Parthian rule followed, and by about AD 100 Mesopotamian culture had effectively come to an end.

Mesopotamia FAQs

Q1. Is Mesopotamia the world's first civilization?

Ans. Yes, Mesopotamian civilization is the world's oldest recorded civilization.

Q2. Which two rivers are associated with Mesopotamia?

Ans. Tigris and Euphrates

Q3. Which modern countries include parts of ancient Mesopotamia?

Ans. Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey, Syria

Source: STD

Three Gorges Antarctic Eye Latest News

China has recently launched the "Three Gorges Antarctic Eye," a 3.2-metre aperture radio/millimetre-wave telescope, at the Zhongshan Station in Antarctica.

About Three Gorges Antarctic Eye

• It is a 3.2-metre radio/millimeter-wave telescope, located at Zhongshan Station, Antarctica.
• It builds upon China’s earlier achievements, such as the Antarctic Survey Telescopes (AST3).
• Purpose: Studying interstellar gas (hydrogen and ammonia), star formation.
• Challenge overcome: Built to withstand Antarctica's extreme cold and strong winds.
• Developed by: China Three Gorges University and Shanghai Normal University.

Related Observatories

Three Gorges Antarctic Eye FAQs

Q1. What is the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye?
Ans: A Chinese-built 3.2-metre radio/millimeter-wave telescope, located at Zhongshan Station, Antarctica.

Q2. What is the Three Gorges Dam?
Ans. China’s 22.5 GW hydropower project on the Yangtze River, the world’s largest power station by capacity.

Source: ENG

Digital Threat Report 2024 Latest News

The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology recently launched the Digital Threat Report 2024 for the Banking, Financial Services, and insurance (BFSI) sector. 

About Digital Threat Report 2024

• It is a collaborative effort by SISA (Strategic Information Services Agreement), a global cybersecurity company, in collaboration with the Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology) and CSIRT-Fin.
• It offers an in-depth analysis of the growing cybersecurity risks in India’s Banking, Financial Services, and Insurance (BFSI) sector. 
• Built on frontline threat intelligence and real-world incident data, the report outlines a unified view of the cyber threat landscape and the shifting dynamics of digital security in an era of rapid technological transformation.

Key Highlights from the Report

• Social Engineering on the Rise: Business Email Compromise (BEC) and phishing attacks have become more precise and damaging, targeting BFSI institutions with tailored tactics that bypass traditional security barriers.
• Supply Chain Vulnerabilities: Breaches through third-party vendors and open-source software have introduced threats at scale, underlining the need for stricter vendor risk management.
• Compliance Evolution: Regulatory frameworks are moving toward harmonization, transforming compliance from a rigid obligation into a strategic tool that can drive growth, improve operations, and build cyber resilience.
• Persistent Control Gaps: Misconfigurations, over-privileged access, and weak access controls continue to plague even the most security-conscious organizations.
• AI-Powered Threats: With artificial intelligence being leveraged by both defenders and attackers, the report warns of a future dominated by highly personalized, large-scale cyber attacks driven by AI technologies.

Digital Threat Report 2024 FAQs

Q1. The Digital Threat Report 2024 focuses primarily on which sector?

Ans. Banking, Financial Services, and Insurance (BFSI)

Q2. Who collaborated to create the Digital Threat Report 2024?

Ans. SISA, CERT-In, and CSIRT-Fin

Q3. What type of cyber attacks are increasingly targeting BFSI institutions, according to the Digital Threat Report 2024?

Ans. Business Email Compromise (BEC) and phishing

Source: NOA

Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL) Latest News

CRISPR-Based Test for Rapid Diagnosis of Rare Blood Cancer: APL

What is Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL)?

• Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL) is a rare but aggressive form of leukemia, a cancer affecting blood cells.
• APL is a subtype of Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) and contributes to approximately 10-15% of newly diagnosed AML cases.
• The condition arises due to a genetic mutation where two genes—PML and RARA—fuse together abnormally, disrupting normal blood cell formation.
• This fusion leads to a significant drop in white blood cells and platelets, impairing the body’s ability to fight infections and control bleeding.
• APL is particularly dangerous because it can cause sudden internal bleeding in vital organs like the lungs and brain, which can be fatal within days if left untreated.
• Early diagnosis and treatment, however, can cure most patients, making timely detection crucial.

Symptoms and Diagnosis

• The median age of diagnosis in India is 34 years, with a male-to-female ratio of 1.5:1.
• Common symptoms include:
  • Sudden bleeding from gums and nose
  • Fatigue
  • Unexplained fever
  • Bone pain
• Although these symptoms may resemble other illnesses, histopathological parameters such as complete blood count (CBC) and cell morphology are essential for definitive diagnosis.

Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL) FAQs

Q1. What is Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL)?
Ans. APL is a rare subtype of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), characterized by abnormal white blood cell formation.

Q2. What causes APL?
Ans. A specific chromosomal translocation t(15;17) involving the PML-RARA gene fusion.

Q3. What is unique about its treatment?
Ans. Unlike other leukemias, APL responds well to all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) and arsenic trioxide, achieving high cure rates.

Q4. What are the main symptoms?
Ans. Symptoms include fatigue, bleeding, and increased infections, often due to reduced normal blood cells.

Source: TH