About Pompeii:

• It is a preserved ancient Roman city located near modern day Naples, Italy.
• It lies at the southeastern base of Mount Vesuvius.
• The area was originally settled in the Bronze Age on an escarpment at the mouth of the Sarnus(modern Sarno) River. 
• Pompeii was built on a spur formed by a prehistoric lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River.
• It was conquered and absorbed into the Roman Empire in 80 BCE.
• At its height, the small city had a thriving economy based on trade and agriculture.
• The population of the town has been estimated at 10-12,000, with one third being slaves. 
• The city featured a complex municipal water system, an amphitheater, and a gymnasium.
• The city was buried in volcanic ash following the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE.
• Pompeii was basically lost and forgotten until it was rediscovered in 1748.
• Its excellent state of preservation gives an invaluable insight into Roman everyday life.
• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Q1: What is the Roman Empire?

The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. Building upon the foundation laid by the Roman Republic, the empire became the largest and most powerful political and military entity in the world up to its time and expanded steadily until its fall, in the west, in 476.The empire began when Augustus Caesar (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus (r. 475-476), was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (r. 476-493). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453) and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Source: 'Scenes from Greek mythology': Hall with Trojan war decorations uncovered in Pompeii

About Long Period Average (LPA) of Rainfall:

• It is the rainfall recorded over a particular region for a given interval (like a month or season) averaged over a long period of time, like 30 years or 50 years. 
• The value is used as a benchmark while forecasting the quantitative rainfall for that region for a specific month or season. 
• IMD, which monitors the rainfall in the country, has prepared this rainfall normal based on the data for the period of 50 years and is updated periodically once every decade by incorporating the latest data from rain gauge stations. 
• The current LPAof all India south-west monsoon rainfall based on the average rainfall over the period 1971-2020 is 868 cm.
• The IMD has in the past calculated the LPA at 88 cm for the 1961-2010 period and at 89 cm for the period 1951-2000.
• Similarly, at the national level, the annual LPA has been reduced from 117 cm to 116 cm.
• Why LPA is needed?
  • Because annual rainfall can vary greatly not just from region to region and from month to month but also from year to year within a particular region or month, an LPA is needed to smooth out trends so that a reasonably accurate prediction can be made.
  • A 50-year LPA covers for large variations in either direction caused by freak years of unusually high or low rainfall (as a result of events such as El Nino or La Nina), as well as for the periodic drought years and the increasingly common extreme weather events caused by climate change.
• The IMD maintains five rainfall distribution categories on an all-India scale. These are:
  • Normal or near normal, when the percentage departure of actual rainfall is +/-10% of LPA, that is, between 96-104% of LPA;
  • Below normal, when the departure of actual rainfall is less than 10% of LPA, that is 90-96% of LPA;
  • Above normal, when actual rainfall is 104-110% of LPA;
  • Deficient, when the departure of actual rainfall is less than 90% of LPA; and
  • Excess, when the departure of actual rainfall is more than 110% of LPA.

Q1: What is Monsoon?

A monsoon is a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation and associated with annual latitudinal oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). ITCZ is the region that circles the Earth and where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres converge - creating a broad trough of low pressure. Seasonal shifts (between equator and tropic of cancer) in the location of the ITCZ with the apparent movement of the sun results in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics. Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern.

Source: Monsoon to be ‘above normal’, predicts IMD

About Exercise Dustlik:

• It is an annual joint military exercise between the Indian Army and the Uzbekistan Army.
• It is conducted alternately in India and Uzbekistan.
• The first edition of the exercise was held in Uzbekistan in November 2019.
• The last edition was conducted in Pithoragarh in February 2023.
• Dustlik-2024:
  • It is the fifth edition of the joint exercise. 
  • The exercise will be conducted at Termez in Uzbekistan.
  • The Indian Armed Forces contingent, comprising 60 personnel, is being represented by 45 personnel from the Indian Army, primarily from a battalion of the JAT Regiment, and 15 personnel from the Indian Air Force.
  • The Uzbekistan contingent, comprising approximately 100 personnel, from the Uzbekistan Army and Air Force, will be represented by personnel from Southern Operational Command, part of the South-West Military District.
  • The aim of Exercise DUSTLIK is to foster military cooperation and enhance combined capabilities to execute joint operations in mountainous as well as semi urban terrain.
  • It would focus on a high degree of physical fitness, joint planning, joint tactical drills, and the basics of special arms skills.
  • The complexity of this edition of Exercise DUSTLIK has been enhanced with the conduct of multi domain operations, as the contingent comprises personnel from combat support arms and services besides infantry.

Q1: Which all countries border Uzbekistan?

It is surrounded by five countries: Kazakhstan to the north, Kyrgyzstan to the northeast, Tajikistan to the southeast, Afghanistan to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southwest, making it one of only two doubly landlocked countries on Earth, the other being Liechtenstein.

Source: Indian Army Contingent Departs For India-Uzbekistan Joint Military Exercise DUSTLIK

About Bumblebees:

• They are large, hairy, social bees belonging to the family Apidae (subfamily Bombinae).

o The family Apidaeincludes the well-known honey bees and bumble bees, as well as carpenter bees, cuckoo bees, digger bees, stingless bees, and orchid bees.

• Distribution:
  • They occur throughout much of the world but are most common in temperate climates.
  • There are over 250 known species, existing primarily in the Northern Hemisphere.
• They are known for their ability to collect nectar from flowers and pollinate plants.
• Features:
  • They are large, yellow,and black flying insects with a distinct buzz. 
  • There is variation in coloration among bumblebees, and some species have bands of red, yellow, and black.
  • They have stocky bodies that are covered with many hairs to which pollen adheres.
  • Bumblebees have four wings; the two rear wings are small and usually attached to the fore wings by a row of hooks called hamuli.
  • The wings move rapidly, at 130-240 beats per second.
  • They are social insects that live in colonies. The queen bee, drones, and worker bees all have specific tasks to help support the colony. 
  • Unlike the honeybee, bumblebees do not make honey, as they do not need to store food for winter. Instead, the season’s new queens hibernate and emerge to find their own nests in the spring.

Q1: What are Pesticides?

Pesticides are chemical compounds that are used to kill pests, including insects, rodents, fungi and unwanted plants (weeds). Over 1000 different pesticides are used around the world. Pesticides are used in public health to kill vectors of disease, such as mosquitoes, and in agriculture to kill pests that damage crops.

Source: Bumblebees don't care about pesticide cocktails: Research highlights their resilience to chemical stressors

About Kerogen:

• Kerogen is the portion of naturally occurring organic matter that is non-extractable using organic solvents i.e. it is insoluble in solvents.
• Kerogen represents about 90% of the organic carbon in sediments.
• It occurs in source rock and may expel hydrocarbons upon thermal cracking.
• Typical organic constituents of kerogen are algae and woody plant material.
• It consists of lighter as well as heavier hydrocarbons and acts like a precursor of oil and natural gas.
• Kerogens have a high molecular weight relative to bitumen, or soluble organic matter. Bitumen forms from kerogen during petroleum generation. 
• Kerogens are described as Type I, consisting of mainly algal and amorphous (but presumably algal) kerogen and highly likely to generate oil; Type II, mixed terrestrial and marine source material that can generate waxy oil; and Type III,woody terrestrial source material that typically generates gas.
• The types of kerogens present in a rock largely control the type of hydrocarbons generated in that rock. 

Different types of kerogens contain different amounts of hydrogen relative to carbon and oxygen. The hydrogen content of kerogen is the controlling factor for oil vs. gas yields from the primary hydrocarbon-generating reactions.

Q1: What are Hydrocarbons?

The term hydrocarbon refers to an organic chemical compound that is composed exclusively of hydrogen and carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons are naturally-occurring and form the basis of crude oil, natural gas, coal, and other important energy sources.

Source: How are hydrocarbons extracted from under the ground? | Explained