About MERCOSUR: 

• Mercosur (MERCOSUR for its Spanish initials) or the Southern Common Market is an economic and political bloc of Latin America.
• Members: It originally comprised Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay as its members. Bolivia and Venezuela joined it later. (Venezuela has been suspended since December 1, 2016).
• It was created in 1991 by signing the Treaty of Asunción, an accord calling for the “free movement of goods, services, and factors of production between countries.” 
• The aim of MERCOSUR is to promote economic integration, free trade, and the movement of goods, services, and people among member countries.
• Governance: The bloc’s highest decision-making body, the Common Market Council, provides a high-level forum for coordinating foreign and economic policy.
• Its official working languages are Spanish and Portuguese.
• India and MERCOSUR signed the Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) in 2004, which allowed New Delhi to forge closer economic ties with one of the world’s largest trade blocs.
• Headquarter: Montevideo, Uruguay.

Q1: What is Free Trade Agreement (FTA)?

A free trade agreement is a preferential arrangement in which members reduce tariffs on trade among themselves, while maintaining their own tariff rates for trade with nonmembers.

Source: Expanding Horizons in South American Regionalism as Bolivia joins MERCOSUR

About Kargil Vijay Diwas:

• Kargil Diwas, also known as Kargil Vijay Diwas, is celebrated annually on July 26 to commemorate India's victory over Pakistan in the Kargil War.
• The day celebrates the courage and sacrifice of Indian soldiers who valiantly defended the nation’s sovereignty.
• The year 2024 marks the 25th anniversary of Kargil Vijay Diwas.

Key Facts about Kargil War:

• It was fought between India and Pakistan between May and July 1999 in the Kargil district of Kashmir and along the Line of Control (LOC).
• Cause: 
  • In an effort to ease these tensions, India and Pakistan signed the Lahore DeclarationinFebruary 1999, which aimed for a peaceful resolution to the Kashmir issue.
  • However, during the winter of 1998-1999, Pakistani forces secretly infiltrated the Drass and Batalik sectors of Kargil in the Ladakh region.
  • Their objective was to capture positions that would allow them to monitorand potentially control movements along the vital NH 1A highway.
  • Initially, the Indian military mistook these infiltrators for insurgents. As the scale of the infiltration became apparent, India mobilized nearly 200,000 troops to counter the threat, leading to the onset of the Kargil War.
• Operation Vijay: The Indian Army fought bravely and recaptured the famous 'Tiger Hill' and other important posts around under 'Operation Vijay' by evicting the Pakistanitroops in the 1999 Kargil War.
• High Altitude Warfare: It was fought at extreme altitudes, with some of the battlegrounds reaching heights of over 18,000 feet.
• Duration: It lasted for approximately three months.
• Armaments:
  • The Indian Army employed heavy artillery, airpower, as well as major infantry operations during the Kargil War.
  • In a first, the Indian side used the Bofors FH-77B howitzers to shoot down enemy positions nested at the top of the mountains. 
  • Israel provided their Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to India during the conflict.
• Live on TV: It was the first ever war to be broadcasted live on TV channels in India. 
• The End of Conflict: The war came to an end on July 26, 1999,when India successfullypushed back the Pakistani forces from the occupied positions.
• Casualties: As per official figures, around 500 Indian soldiers laid down their lives while at least 1,000 Pakistani troops were also killed.
• It was the last war that happened between India and Pakistan.

Q1: What is the Bofors FH-77B howitzer?

The Bofors FH-77B is a 155mm towed howitzer, an artillery piece designed for field artillery use. It was manufactured by Bofors, a Swedish arms manufacturer. The FH-77B is renowned for its accuracy, range, and mobility, making it a highly effective weapon in various military operations.

Source: Kargil Vijay Diwas 2024 PM Modi Drass Visit Live: Security heightened ahead of PM Modi's visit to Kargil War Memorial today

About Dark Oxygen:

• Oxygen that is being produced in complete darkness thousands of feet below the ocean surface is termed dark oxygen.
• Why is the discovery important?
  • Until now, it was thought that oxygen was created only through photosynthesis, a process that requires sunlight. 
  • Oceanic plankton, drifting plants, algae, and some bacteria are the primary elements attributed to the production of oxygen in the ocean. All these organisms are capable of photosynthesis. 
  • The production of oxygen at such depths is thought to be impossiblebecause there isn't enough sunlight for plants to dophotosynthesis.
  • However, in this case, oxygen is not being produced by plants.
  • The oxygen comes out of Polymetallic nodules that are similar in resemblance to lumps of coal.
  • These nodules, made up of metals like manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, and lithium, can generate oxygen through electrochemical activity even in the absence of light.
  • They are splitting H2O molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

Key Facts about Polymetallic Nodules:

• Polymetallic nodules, also known as manganese nodules, are small, rounded accretions found on the seabed of the deep ocean floor.
• These nodules are composed of a mixture of metals and minerals, including manganese, iron, nickel, copper, cobalt, and traces of other valuable elements such as platinum, rare earth elements, and lithium. 
• Polymetallic nodules form through a slow and gradual process over millions of years.
• They develop as concentric layers around a central nucleus, which can be a shell fragment, a shark tooth, or a piece of basaltic rock.
• The layers are primarily composed of manganese and iron oxides, with other metals being deposited along with them.
• These metals are really important for the production of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicle batteries, mobile phones, wind turbines, solar panels, etc.
• They are mainly found in the north-central Pacific Ocean, the southeastern Pacific Ocean, and the northern Indian Ocean.
• It is said that there may be enough polymetallic nodules in an area of the Pacific Ocean called the Clarion-Clipperton Zone to meet global energy demands for decades after.

Q1: What is photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar. Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis.The process is carried out by plants, algae, and some types of bacteria, which capture energy from sunlight to produce oxygen (O2) and chemical energy stored in glucose (a sugar). Herbivores then obtain this energy by eating plants, and carnivores obtain it by eating herbivores.

Source: ‘Dark oxygen’ is being produced 13,000 feet below ocean surface, ground-breaking study finds

About State of the World’s Forests 2024 Report:

• It is published by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
• It provides a comprehensive analysis of forest conditions and trends. 
• Highlights of the Report:
  • It highlighted a decline in deforestation rates compared to previous decades, with several countries showing significant improvements. 
  • The data also reveals a disturbing picture of the challenges forests face due toclimate change.
  • In 2020, the global forest covered approximately 4.1 billion hectares (ha), or 31 percent of the land area.
  • Russia, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America, and China account for 54 percent of the global forest area, in descending order. 
  • Another 10 countries, including Australia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Peru, and India, contribute about two-thirds of the global forest area. 
  • The report estimated that between 1990 and 2020, approximately 420 million ha of forest were converted to land use.
  • However, deforestation rates fell from 15.8 million ha per year between 1990 and 2002 to 10.2 million ha between 2015 and 2020. 
  • Deforestation rates in Africa were 4.41 million ha, 2.95 million in South America, and 2.24 million in Asia.
  • It also noted 10 countries recording annual gains in forest area in 2020, which include China, Australia, India, Chile, Viet Nam, Turkey, the United States of America, France, Italy, and Romania. 
• India gained 2,66,000 hectares of forest annually from 2010-2020, ranking third globally in forest area gains.
  • The global mangrove area was recorded to be 14.8 million ha, out of which South and Southeast Asia contributed almost 44 percent of the total global area. 
  • The rate of gross global mangrove loss decreased by 23 percent between the two recent decades (2000-2010 and 2010-2020), and the rate of gain in mangrove area also decreased slightly.
  • Asia was the major contributor to mangrove loss and gains.
  • It is estimated that about 340-370 million ha (equivalent to less than half the land area of Australia) of the earth’s land area is impacted by annual fire.
  • Satellite data revealed that total fires in 2023 emitted 6,687 megatons of carbon dioxide globally, more than double the emissions contributed by the European Union by burning fossil fuels.

Q1: What is the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)?

It is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition and food security. Its goal is to achieve food security for all and make sure that people have regular access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives. It is headquartered at Rome, Italy. Its sister bodies are the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

Source: State of the World’s Forests 2024: Global efforts curb deforestation, but threats to forests from wildfires and pests remain

About Wind Demon:

• It is an advanced air-to-surface cruise missile designed for precise, long-range attacks at a low cost.
• It was developed by the Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI).
• The missile can be launched from a helicopter or aircraft and is capable of striking both mobile and stationary targets according to a predetermined plan without the need for operator intervention.
• Features:
  • With a range of over 200 kilometers and a weight of 140 kg, this missile is distinguished by its remarkable accuracy, with a Circular Error Probable (CEP) of just 1 meter. 
  • Its ability to fly at extremely low altitudes reduces the risk of detection, disruption, and interception, thus enhancing its operational effectiveness.
  • Operators can choose from various speed profiles—fast/slow/fast—tailored to specific tactical requirements.
  • The missile operates effectively both day and night and is equipped with an advanced electro-optical seeker with thermal capabilities.
  • It also features laser spot tracking capabilities, and its warhead weighs over 20 kilograms.
  • Additionally, it is equipped with a Man-in-the-Loop control system that allows human supervision during critical mission phases.

Q1: What are cruise missiles?

Cruise missiles are unmanned vehicles that are propelled by jet engines, much like an airplane. They can be launched from ground, air, or sea platforms. Cruise missiles remain within the atmosphere for the duration of their flight and can fly as low as a few meters off the ground. Flying low to the surface of the earth expends more fuel but makes a cruise missile very difficult to detect.

Source: Israel Introduces New ‘Wind Demon’ Air-to-Surface Cruise Missile

About NOvA (NuMI Off-axis νe Appearance):

• It is an experiment to study one of nature’s most elusive particles: neutrinos.
• It is managed by the U.S. Department of Energy's Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, located outside of Chicago, United States.
  • Fermilab sends a beam of neutrinos500 miles north toa 14,000-ton detector in Ash River, Minnesota.
  • By measuring the neutrinos and their antimatter partners, antineutrinos, in both locations, physicists can study how these particles change their type as they travel, a phenomenon known as neutrino oscillation.
• NOvA aims to learn more about the ordering of neutrino masses.

What are Neutrinos?

• They are elementary subatomic particles with no electric charge, very little mass, and 1/2 unit of spin.
• They travel at near lightspeeds.
• Neutrinos belong to the family of particles called leptons, which are not subject to the strong force. 
• They are often called 'ghost particles' because they barely interact with anything else. 
• Neutrinos are, however, the most common particle in the universe. Approximately 100 trillion neutrinos pass completely harmlessly through your body every second.
• Every time atomic nuclei come together (like in the sun) or break apart (like in a fission reactor or particle accelerator), they produce neutrinos.

Q1: What is Antimatter?

Antimatter is the same as ordinary matter except that it has the opposite electric charge. It is also known as “mirror” matter. The antimatter particles corresponding to electrons, protons, and neutrons are called positrons, antiprotons, and antineutrons; collectively they are referred to as antiparticles. These anti-particles can combine to form anti-atoms and, in principle, could even form antimatter regions of our universe. Matter and antimatter cannot coexist at close range for more than a small fraction of a second because they collide with and annihilate each other, releasing large quantities of energy in the form of gamma rays or elementary particles. Antimatter was created along with matter after the Big Bang.

Source: New NOvA data deepens mystery of subatomic particle’s mass

About Exercise KHAAN QUEST: 

• It is a multinational military exercise which will bring together military forces from around the world to collaborate and enhance their peacekeeping capabilities.
• Last edition of Exercise KHAAN QUEST was conducted in Mongolia from 19th June to 2nd July 2023. 
• Background
  • The exercise first started as a bilateral event between USA and Mongolian Armed Forces in the year 2003.
  • Subsequently, from the year 2006 onwards the exercise graduated to a Multinational Peacekeeping Exercise with current year being the 21st iteration.
• The Indian Army contingent comprising 40 personnel is being represented mainly by troops from a Battalion of the MADRAS REGIMENT along with personnel from other Arms and Services. One Woman Officer and two Women Soldiers will also form part of the contingent.
• Aim of Exercise KHAAN QUEST is to prepare Indian Armed Forces for peacekeeping missions while operating in a multinational environment, thereby increasing interoperability and military readiness in peace support operations under Chapter VII of United Nations Charter.
• Tactical drills to be practiced during the exercise will include establishment of Static and Mobile Check Points, Cordon and Search Operations etc.
• The exercise will facilitate developing inter-operability, bonhomie and camaraderie between soldiers of the participating countries.

Q1: What is UN Peacekeeping? 

The UN Charter gives the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. In fulfilling this responsibility, the Council can establish a UN peace operation.

Source: INDIAN ARMY CONTINGENT DEPARTS FOR MULTINATIONAL MILITARY EXERCISE KHAAN QUEST

About Sea urchins:

• They belong to a group of marine invertebrates called echinoderms, which means spiny-skinned animals. 
• It includes other well-known marine creatures like starfish and sea cucumbers.
• Habitat: They can be found in various marine environments, including rocky shores, coral reefs, seagrass beds, and sandy bottoms. They live on the ocean floor, usually on hard surfaces, and use tube feet or spines to move about.
• Appearance: Sea urchins are characterized by their spherical to somewhat flattened, spiny bodies.
• The largest urchin (known from a single specimen) is Sperostoma giganteum of deep waters off Japan.
• Features
  • They have a globular body and a radial arrangement of organs, shown by five bands of pores running from mouth to anus over the test (internal skeleton).
  • The pores accommodate tube feet, which are slender, extensible, and often sucker-tipped. 
  • They have a hard exoskeleton, or test, made up of interlocking plates or ossicles, which are often covered with movable spines.
  • From nodules on the test arise long, movable spines and pedicellariae (pincerlike organs); these structures may have poison glands.
• Food Habit
  • They are herbivorous, primarily feeding on algae and plant material.
  • They use their specialized mouthparts, called Aristotle's lantern, to scrape algae and other food sources from rocks or the seafloor.

Q1: What are invertebrates?

Invertebrates are characterized by their lack of a backbone or vertebral column. Instead, they have other structural features that support and protect their bodies. Invertebrates comprise a vast array of animal groups, including insects, spiders, crustaceans, mollusks etc

Source: Sea urchins fed waste cabbage to spare Japan's seaweed forests

About Ketamine Pill: 

• Ketamine, also known as Ketalar, is a medicine that doctors use to make people not feel pain during surgeries.
• It is sometimes called a “party drug”, blocks the receptor for an excitatory neurotransmitter — those that cause neurons fire and send messages — called glutamate.
• It is derived from a hallucinogenic drug Phencyclidine (PCP), it works by blocking the NMDA receptor in the brain and spinal cord, and increases a brain chemical or neurotransmitter called glutamate.
• It halts transmission of pain in the spinal cord and activates reward pathways of the brain.
• It is a dissociative anaesthetic with psychedelic properties and is used under strict medical supervision for anaesthesia and to treat treatment-resistant depression.
• Uses: Ketamine therapy is used to treat depression, anxiety, PTSD, end-of-life distress, chronic pain, drug/alcohol problems, and more.
• Potential side effects on the body include agitation, depression, cognitive issues, unconsciousness, and memory loss.
• Regulation in India: It is a Schedule X drug in India, which means it is tightly controlled and even monitored on a case-specific basis by the prescribing doctor. 

Q1: What is Anesthesia?

It is the use of medicines to prevent pain during surgery and other procedures. These medicines are called anesthetics. They may be given by injection, inhalation, topical lotion, spray, eye drops, or skin patch.

Source: Ketamine pill offers hope, and risks, for treatment-resistant depression