Sects of Buddhism, Mahayana, Hinayana, Vajrayana, Other Sects

Buddhism originated in the 6th century BCE with Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, in the Gangetic plains of India and gradually diversified into numerous sects over centuries. Teachers travelled widely, debating in Kutagarashalas (assembly halls) and forest groves, persuading rivals and lay followers. The first major schism divided the Sangha into Sthaviravada (Elders) and Mahasanghika (Great Community). Over time, three broad traditions became prominent: Hinayana (Theravada), Mahayana and Vajrayana, each with distinct scriptures, philosophies and practices.

Sects of Buddhism

The division of Buddhism into sects began within a few centuries after the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana (c. 483 BCE) due to differences in interpretation of doctrine (Dhamma), monastic discipline (Vinaya) and philosophical analysis led to divisions within the Sangha. The Second Buddhist Council (c. 383 BCE) marked the first major split into Sthaviravada (Elders) and Mahasanghika (Great Community). Historical records and Buddhist texts refer to approximately 64 schools. While some vanished, others evolved into major traditions. In modern academic classification, Buddhism is broadly grouped into Theravada (Southern Buddhism), Mahayana (East Asian Buddhism) and Vajrayana (Tibetan or Tantric Buddhism).

Also Read:  Buddhism

Mahayana Sect of Buddhism

Mahayana, meaning “Greater Vehicle,” emphasizes universal salvation through the Bodhisattva ideal and expanded Sanskrit scriptures.

• Origin and Development: Mahayana emerged around the 1st century BCE within early Buddhist communities, particularly among Mahasanghika groups in Andhra Pradesh. It expanded through Central Asia to China during the Han dynasty and later to Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
• Concept of Buddha: Mahayana views the Buddha as a transcendental, supramundane being with multiple manifestations. It accepts the existence of numerous Buddhas like Amitabha and cosmic Bodhisattvas inhabiting Pure Lands beyond earthly realms.
• Bodhisattva Ideal: Central to Mahayana is the Bodhisattva path, where individuals postpone personal nirvana to assist all beings. Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri and Kshitigarbha are prominent Bodhisattvas embodying compassion and wisdom.
• Scriptures: Mahayana texts are primarily in Sanskrit and preserved in the Chinese Buddhist Canon and Tibetan Kangyur. Important sutras include the Lotus Sutra, Avatamsaka Sutra, Prajnaparamita Sutras and Lankavatara Sutra.
• Philosophical Schools: Two major philosophical systems developed- Madhyamaka (Sunyavada) founded by Nagarjuna (2nd century CE) and Yogachara (Vijnanavada) founded by Asanga and Vasubandhu (4th century CE).
• Doctrine of Sunyata: Madhyamaka emphasizes Sunyata (emptiness), asserting that all phenomena lack inherent existence. Scholars like Buddhapalita, Bhavaviveka and Chandrakirti elaborated this philosophy in classical India.
• Mind Only Theory: Yogachara teaches that reality is consciousness only (Cittamatra). It stresses meditation (yoga) as a method for realizing ultimate truth, hence the name Yogachara.
• Idol Worship and Bhakti: Mahayana introduced devotional practices, image worship and elaborate rituals. Buddha statues became widespread in Gandhara and Mathura art traditions during the Kushana period.
• Geographic Spread: Today Mahayana constitutes over half of the world’s Buddhists, dominant in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam, forming the largest Buddhist demographic group globally.
• Influence on Later Traditions: Vajrayana and Mantrayana evolved as offshoots of Mahayana during the 7th to 8th centuries CE, incorporating tantric rituals and esoteric practices while retaining Mahayana philosophical foundations.

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Hinayana Sect of Buddhism

Hinayana, meaning “Lesser Vehicle,” refers historically to early conservative schools, with Theravada as the surviving representative. The surviving representative today is Theravada (Teaching of the Elders). It traces its roots to the Sthaviravada lineage after the Second Council.

• Terminology and Meaning: Hinayana is a controversial term used by Mahayanists. The surviving tradition is Theravada (“Teaching of the Elders”), derived from Sthavira Nikaya through the Sri Lankan Mahavihara lineage.
• View of Buddha: Hinayana traditions regard Buddha as an enlightened human teacher, not a divine incarnation. They emphasize his historical role as a guide who discovered and taught the path to liberation.
• Scriptures and Language: Their canonical texts are preserved in Pali as the Tipitaka, comprising Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka, forming the doctrinal basis of Theravada Buddhism.
• Philosophical Approach: Early schools like Sarvastivada proposed that dharmas exist in past, present and future. Vaibhashikas upheld direct perception of reality, while Sautrantikas supported indirect perception theory.
• Sub Schools: Important early sects included Sarvastivada, Pudgalavada, Vibhajyavada and Dharmaguptaka. The Sammatīya school was once highly influential in Gujarat and Sindh during the 7th century CE.
• Emphasis on Arhat Ideal: Hinayana focuses on attaining Arhatship- personal liberation from samsara. The practitioner seeks self effort and strict adherence to monastic discipline to achieve nirvana.
• Opposition to Idol Worship: Early Hinayana traditions did not encourage image worship or devotional bhakti practices. Symbolic representations like footprints and stupas were initially preferred.
• Geographic Presence: Theravada remains dominant in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and parts of Bangladesh and Nepal, representing Southern Buddhism in modern classification.
• Vinaya Traditions: Theravada follows its own Vinaya, while East Asian Mahayana follows Dharmaguptaka Vinaya and Tibetan Buddhism follows Mulasarvastivada Vinaya, reflecting early monastic divisions.
• Historical Significance: Many early sects disappeared by the medieval period, but their doctrinal contributions shaped Abhidharma literature and influenced both Mahayana and Vajrayana philosophical systems.

Also Read: Buddhist Literature

Vajrayana Sect of Buddhism

Vajrayana, meaning “Diamond Vehicle,” integrates tantric rituals, esoteric symbolism and mantra based meditation practices.

• Origin and Timeline: Vajrayana developed around the 7th to 8th centuries CE in India as a tantric offshoot of Mahayana, flourishing in Bengal, Bihar and later spreading to Tibet and Mongolia.
• Meaning of Vajra: The term “Vajra” means thunderbolt or diamond, symbolizing indestructible wisdom. Practitioners believe enlightenment can be accelerated through esoteric rituals and symbolic practices.
• Tantric Texts: Vajrayana relies on Buddhist Tantras alongside Mahayana sutras. Key texts are preserved in the Tibetan Kangyur and Tengyur collections, forming Indo-Tibetan canonical literature.
• Role of Deities: Female divinities like Tara are central, regarded as embodiments of compassion and wisdom. Tara is worshipped as a meditation deity and sometimes described as a female Buddha.
• Mantras and Rituals: Chanting “Om Mani Padme Hum” is associated with Avalokiteshvara worship. Vajrayana practices include mudras, mandalas, visualization techniques and guru initiation ceremonies.
• Monastic Tradition: Tibetan Vajrayana follows the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya. Major Tibetan schools include Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya and Gelug, each with distinct lineages and philosophical interpretations.
• Geographic Spread: Vajrayana dominates in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, Sikkim, Ladakh and parts of Siberia. It is often identified with Tibetan Lamaism in historical terminology.
• Esoteric Elements: Vajrayana incorporates mysticism, magical powers (siddhis) and symbolic union of male and female principles, representing wisdom and method in tantric cosmology.
• Integration with Mahayana: Despite distinctive practices, Vajrayana upholds Mahayana’s Bodhisattva ideal and philosophical doctrines like Sunyata, integrating them within tantric ritual frameworks.
• Cultural Impact: Vajrayana produced rich artistic traditions including thangka paintings, monastery architecture and ritual dance forms, significantly shaping Himalayan religious culture.

Other Sects of Buddhism

Numerous early and regional sects shaped Buddhist doctrinal diversity beyond the three major vehicles.

• Mahasanghika: Originating after the Second Buddhist Council, this group separated over monastic discipline disputes. It is often considered the ideological precursor to Mahayana Buddhism.
• Lokottaravada: A Mahasanghika sub sect emphasizing the transcendental nature of the Buddha. It produced the Mahavastu, a Sanskrit biography portraying Buddha as supramundane.
• Sarvastivada: Prominent in Kashmir and Central Asia during Ashoka’s era, it developed extensive Abhidharma texts like the Mahavibhasa Shastra, advocating the “all exists” doctrine.
• Sammitiya: A Pudgalavada sub sect believing in a “person” (pudgala) distinct yet dependent on five skandhas. It was highly influential in 7th century western India.
• Dharmaguptaka: This early school significantly contributed to spreading Buddhism to Central Asia and China. Its Vinaya remains authoritative in East Asian monastic traditions.
• Caitika School: Concentrated in Andhra and South India, associated with artistic heritage at Ajanta and Ellora caves, influencing Mahayana textual developments.
• East Asian Schools: Traditions such as Tiantai, Huayan, Chan (Zen) and Pure Land developed in China and spread to Korea and Japan, interpreting Mahayana sutras uniquely.
• Japanese Traditions: Tendai and Shingon (esoteric), Zen (Rinzai and Soto) and Pure Land sects like Jodo Shinshu illustrate doctrinal adaptation within Japanese cultural context.
• Newar and Nepalese Traditions: Newar Buddhism integrates Sanskrit texts and caste based practices, blending Mahayana and Vajrayana elements unique to the Kathmandu Valley.
• Modern Movements: Navayana founded by B.R. Ambedkar in 1956 reinterpreted Buddhism for social equality, while movements like Humanistic Buddhism and Vipassana globalized Buddhist practice in the 20th century.