Holocene Epoch Latest News

Rates of relative sea-level rise during the final stage of the last deglaciation, the early Holocene, are key to understanding future ice melt and sea-level change under a warming climate.

About Holocene Epoch

• It is the current period of geologic time. 
• The term was introduced by Gervais in 1869 and was accepted as part of valid geological nomenclature by the International Geological Congress in 1885. 
• Another term that is sometimes used is the Anthropocene Epoch, because its primary characteristic is the global changes caused by human activity.
• The Holocene Epoch began 12,000 to 11,500 years ago at the close of the Paleolithic Ice Age and continues through today.
• It is marked by a significant warming trend and relative climate stability compared to the previous glacial period.
• The sediments of the Holocene, both continental and marine, cover the largest area of the globe of any epoch in the geologic record, but the Holocene is unique because it coincides with the late and post-Stone Age history of humankind. 
• Among interglacial periods, the Holocene is unique as the period in which more complex human civilisations and agriculture developed.

Holocene Epoch FAQs

Q1. When did the Holocene Epoch begin?

Ans. 12,000 to 11,500 years ago

Q2. What major climatic change characterizes the Holocene Epoch?

Ans. It is marked by a significant warming trend and relative climate stability compared to the previous glacial period.

Q3. Which epoch is known as the Great ice age?

Ans. Pleistocene Epoch 

Source: NAT

International Olympic Committee (IOC) Latest News

Kirsty Coventry Becomes First Woman and African President of the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

About the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

• Established in 1894 by Pierre de Coubertin to revive the ancient Greek Olympics.
• Headquarters: Lausanne, Switzerland.
• Mission: "Building a Better World through Sport."

Roles & Responsibilities

• Governs the Olympic Games (Summer, Winter, and Youth Olympics).
• Oversees National Olympic Committees (NOCs) worldwide.
• Ensures adherence to the Olympic Charter.

International Olympic Committee (IOC) Session

• Annual meeting of IOC members to make key decisions.
• 101 voting members + 45 honorary members.
• Decides on:
  • Amending the Olympic Charter.
  • Electing IOC President and Executive Board.
  • Selecting the host city for future Olympic Games.

Process of Selecting the Host Country for the Olympics

• Informal dialogue: IOC engages with interested countries to discuss potential bids.
• Targeted dialogue: IOC’s Executive Board invites a "preferred host" to refine its proposal.
• No fixed timeframe: The final selection can take years depending on political, economic, and environmental factors.
• Key selection criteria:
  • Funding strategy & financial sustainability.
  • Infrastructure readiness (transport, venues, accommodation).
  • Alignment with local development goals.
  • Public support and socio-economic factors.

Impact on India’s 2036 Olympic Bid

• India is competing with Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and 10 other nations for the 2036 Olympics.
• Coventry had welcomed India’s bid but emphasized that strong governance and transparency in the Indian Olympic Association (IOA) are necessary.

International Olympic Committee (IOC) FAQs

Q1. What is the International Olympic Committee (IOC)?

Ans. The IOC is a non-governmental organization responsible for overseeing the Olympic Games and promoting the Olympic Movement worldwide. It was founded on 23 June 1894 and is headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland.

Q2. How many countries are part of the IOC?

Ans. The IOC recognizes 206 National Olympic Committees (NOCs), which include all UN member states and additional territories like Hong Kong and Puerto Rico.

Q3. What is the role of the Olympic Charter?

Ans. The Olympic Charter is the guiding document that defines the rules and principles of the Olympic Movement, including the responsibilities of the IOC, NOCs, and IFs.

Q4. What is the Refugee Olympic Team?

Ans. Introduced in 2016, the Refugee Olympic Team allows displaced athletes to compete under the Olympic flag, promoting inclusivity and solidarity.

Source: IE

GPS Spoofing Latest News

As many as 465 GPS interference and spoofing incidents have been reported in the border region, mostly in the Amritsar and Jammu areas, between November 2023 and February 2025, the government said recently.

What is a Spoofing Attack?

• A “spoofing attack” is a broad category of cyberattack where fake data is disguised as originating from a trusted source to deceive systems or users. 
• Kinds of spoofing include GPS Spoofing, IP spoofing—often used to avoid detection while performing Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)—as well as SMS spoofing and caller ID spoofing, where messages or calls appear to be from another number or caller ID.

About GPS Spoofing

• GPS spoofing uses bogus radio signals to imitate legitimate Global Positioning System (GPS) signals, misdirecting GPS-receiving devices about their actual location. 
• This can result in incorrect navigation data and potentially life-threatening situations, especially in systems that rely heavily on precise location information.

How GPS Spoofing Works?

• GPS spoofing exploits the inherent vulnerabilities in the GPS infrastructure – the weak signal strength of GPS satellites.
• The GPS functions by sending signals from satellites to GPS receivers on Earth.
• These receivers then calculate their position based on the time it takes for these signals to arrive.
• However, due to the weak signal strength of the GPS satellites, these signals can be easily overwhelmed by fake signals,resulting in inaccurate location data on the receiving device.
• Typically, a GPS spoofer begins by acquiring a basic understanding of the victim’s GPS setup, including the types of signals it uses and how they are processed.
• With that information, the attacker then sends counterfeit GPS signals that mimic the real ones.
• These fake signals are stronger, causing the receiver to recognize them as authentic signals.
• As a result, the victim’s GPS receiver ends up processing these counterfeit signals, leading to erroneous location information.

GPS Spoofing FAQs

Q1. How does GPS spoofing exploit the vulnerabilities of the GPS system?

Ans. By overwhelming weak GPS satellite signals with stronger fake signals.

Q2. How does a GPS spoofer make a GPS receiver accept fake signals?

Ans. By sending stronger counterfeit signals than real GPS satellites.

Q3. What is GPS jamming?

Ans. GPS jamming is the deliberate interference of GPS signals using radio frequency (RF) transmitters that emit signals on the same frequency as GPS satellites. 

Source: TH

Corbett Tiger Reserve Latest News

The Supreme Court recently pulled up the Uttarakhand government for moving at a "snail's pace" against its senior officers accused of illegal constructions in Corbett Tiger Reserve.

About Corbett Tiger Reserve

• It is located on the foothills of the Himalayas in Uttarakhand.
• Establishment:
  • Corbett is the first national park of India, established in 1936. It was named Hailey National Park then.
  • In 1957, the park was rechristened Corbett National Park in memory of the late Jim Corbett, a great naturalist and eminent conservationist.
  • After the addition of areas to the originally declared National Park, the total area of Tiger Reserve extends to 1288.31 sq. km.
• The terrain is undulating with several valleys. The rivers Ramganga, Pallaen, and Sonanadi flow through the valleys.
• By and large, the reserve is spread over the Bhabar and lower Shivalik regions with a deep-water table.
• The tract is porous with boulders and sand deposits.
• Flora:
  • In general, the vegetation comprises sal and mixed forests, interspersed with grass lands and riparian vegetation.
  • The grasslands are locally known as ‘Chaur’, which are an outcome of abandoned settlements or past clearings.
  • Evergreen Sal and its combined trees, the Sheesham, and the Kanju are found extensively on the ridges.
  • One plant, (actually a weed), which is a major irritant to the reserve authorities and is widespread in the jungle, is the Lantana. 
• Fauna: Tigers and elephants are the charismatic mammals, besides a large array of co-predators (leopards, small carnivores), ungulates (sambar, hog deer, spotted deer), birds, reptiles (gharials, crocodile), and fishes. 

Corbett Tiger Reserve FAQs

Q1. In which state is Corbett Tiger Reserve?

Ans. Uttarakhand

Q2. Which River flows through Corbett Tiger Reserve?

Ans. Ramganga, Pallaen, and Sonanadi flow through the reserve.

Q3. What is the old name of Corbett National Park?

Ans. Hailey National Park

Source: BS

Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority Latest News

The Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA) recently issued regulations for the operationalisation of the Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) under the National Pension System (NPS), 2025.

About Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority

• It is a statutory regulatory body set up under the PFRDA Act enacted in 2014.
• Objective: To promote old-age income security by establishing, developing, and regulating pension funds and to protect the interests of subscribers to schemes of pension funds and related matters.
• It comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Finance.
• PFRDA is headquartered in New Delhi, with regional offices located around the country.

Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority Composition

• Section 4 of the PFRDA Act specifies that the Authority shall consist of the following members, namely:
  • a Chairperson;
  • three whole-time members; and
  • three part-time members,
  • to be appointed by the Central Government from amongst persons of ability, integrity, and standing and having knowledge and experience in economics or finance or law with at least one person from each discipline.

Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority Functions

• Regulate the National Pension System (NPS) and other pension schemes to which the PFRDA Act applies;
• Undertaking steps to educate subscribers and the general public on issues relating to pensions, retirement savings, and related issues, and training intermediaries.
• Providing pension schemes not regulated by any other enactment;
• Protecting the interests of subscribers of NPS and such other schemes as approved by the authority from time to time.
• Approving the schemes and laying down norms of investment guidelines under such schemes;
• Registering and regulating intermediaries: NPS Trust, Points of Presence, Central Record-keeping Agency, Trustee Bank, Pension Funds, Custodian for time-bound service to subscribers.
• Ensuring that the intermediation and other operational costs are economical and reasonable;
• Making the existing grievance redressal process robust and time-bound.
• Adjudication of disputes between intermediaries and between intermediaries and subscribers.

Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority FAQs

Q1. Is Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA a statutory body?

Ans. Yes, the Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA) is a statutory body.

Q2. Which department is PFRDA under?

Ans. It comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Finance.

Q3. Who appoints the members of the Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA)?

Ans. Central Government

Source: BS

Iguana Latest News

Voyage of the Iguanas: How They Traveled from the Americas to Fiji

What Are Iguanas?

• Iguanas are large, stout lizards primarily found in tropical regions of the Americas.
• They have scaly skin covered in warts, spines along their back, and a flap of flesh (dewlap) under their necks.
• Iguanas exhibit various colour morphs, including green, blue, and grey.
• They are herbivores and have adapted to different environments, from deserts to rainforests.

Geographic Range

• Native Habitat: Found throughout Central and South America, from Mexico to Paraguay and Brazil.
• Introduced regions: Established populations in Florida, Hawaii, and Caribbean islands.
• Largest Lizard in the USA: It is the largest lizard species found within U.S. borders.
• Arboreal Species: Primarily tree-dwelling (canopy layers), rarely descending except for nesting.
• Preferred Environments:
  • Forests & Rainforests (terrestrial biomes).
  • Rivers, Lakes & Coastal Waters (aquatic biomes).
  • Wetlands (swamps).
  • Urban & Agricultural Areas (suburban adaptability).

Conservation Status

• IUCN Red List: Not Threatened.
• CITES Listing: Appendix II (regulated trade).
• Threats to Population:
  • Overexploitation for pet trade & leather industry.
  •  Habitat destruction due to deforestation and urbanization.

How Did Iguanas Reach Fiji?

• A recent study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences suggests that the ancestors of Fijian iguanas travelled nearly 8,000 km across the Pacific Ocean on rafts of floating vegetation from the Americas.
• Theory of Rafting: Rafting is a process where animals hitch a ride on floating vegetation across oceans.
  • Common among small invertebrates, but rare for large vertebrates due to survival challenges.
• Previous Evidence of Iguana Rafting:
  • 1995 Caribbean Observation: Scientists saw 15 green iguanas raft over 300 km on hurricane debris.
  • Galápagos Iguanas: Likely rafted 1,000 km from South America.
• The Fijian crossing was nearly 8 times longer, making it an extraordinary event.

Iguana FAQs

Q1. What is an Iguana?
Ans. Iguanas are large, herbivorous lizards native to Central and South America. They belong to the Iguanidae family and are known for their spiny crests, strong tails, and sharp claws.

Q2. What is the ecological significance of Iguanas?
Ans. Iguanas play a crucial role in seed dispersal and maintaining vegetation balance in their ecosystems. They help control plant growth and serve as prey for predators.

Q3. Why is the Marine Iguana unique?
Ans. The Marine Iguana is the only lizard adapted to a marine environment. It feeds on algae, can dive underwater, and has specialized salt glands to excrete excess salt.

Source: IE

Public Accounts Committee (PAC) Latest News

The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) has criticised the Union Ministry of Tourism for the poor implementation of the Swadesh Darshan Scheme.

About the Public Accounts Committee (PAC)

• Established in 1921 (oldest parliamentary committee in India).
• Purpose: Audits the revenue and expenditure of the Government of India to ensure public funds are spent efficiently and legally.
• Key functions:
  • Examines the CAG audit report on government expenditure.
  • Ensures money sanctioned by Parliament is spent properly.
  • Investigates financial irregularities, losses, and inefficiencies in government spending.
• Membership:
  • 22 members (15 from Lok Sabha, 7 from Rajya Sabha).
  • Chairperson: A Lok Sabha MP, traditionally from the Opposition.
  • Term: One year.
  • Ministers cannot be members of the PAC.

About the Swadesh Darshan Scheme

• Launched:2015 by the Ministry of Tourism.
• Objective: To develop sustainable and responsible tourism destinations in India by creating thematic tourist circuits.
• Funding:100% centrally funded scheme.
• Implementation:
  • The Ministry of Tourism provides financial assistance to State Governments, UT Administrations, and Central Agencies.
  • Operation & Maintenance (O&M) is the responsibility of the respective State/UT government.
• Key features:
  • Development of theme-based tourism circuits.
  • Infrastructure development such as roads, signage, parking, and public amenities.
  • Eco-tourism and heritage conservation efforts.

Public Accounts Committee (PAC) FAQs

Q1. What is the Public Accounts Committee (PAC)?

Ans. The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) is a parliamentary committee in India responsible for auditing the revenue and expenditure of the government. It ensures financial accountability and transparency in public spending.

Q2. When was the Public Accounts Committee established?

Ans. The PAC was first set up in 1921 under the Government of India Act, 1919.

Q3. Who appoints the Chairman of the PAC?

Ans. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha appoints the Chairman of the PAC, who is traditionally from the opposition party.

Source: TH

Samarth Incubation Programme Latest News

The Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DoT) recently launched the ‘Samarth’ incubation programme .

About Samarth Incubation Programme

• It was launched by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DoT), an autonomous Telecom R&D centre of the Department of Telecommunication (DoT), Government of India.
• Objective: To support startups in the areas of telecom software, cybersecurity, 5G and 6G technologies, artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT) applications, and quantum technologies.
• The program aims to encourage the development of sustainable and scalable business models, offer access to cutting-edge resources, and help startups bridge the gap from ideation to commercialisation.
• C-DoT has selected Software Technology Parks of India (STPI) as the implementation partner. 
• The program, which will be delivered in a hybrid mode, has a maximum cohort size of 18 startups per program, with a total of 36 startups across two cohorts of six months each.
• The applications, under ‘Samarth’ are open to Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) recognised startups. 
• Selected startups will get a grant of up to Rs 5 lakh each, access to office space for six months at the C-DoT campus, access to C-DoT lab facilities, and mentorship from C-DoT technical leaders and industry experts.
• Based on progress the startup will get an opportunity for future collaboration under the C-DoT Collaborative Research Program,”

Samarth Incubation Programme FAQs

Q1. Who launched the Samarth Incubation Programme?

Ans. It was launched by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DoT), an autonomous Telecom R&D centre of the Department of Telecommunication (DoT).

Q2. What is the primary objective of the Samarth Incubation Programme?

Ans. To support startups in telecom, cybersecurity, AI, and quantum technologies.

Q3. Which organization is the implementation partner for the Samarth Incubation Programme?

Ans. Software Technology Parks of India (STPI)

Source: ET

Jal Shakti Abhiyan Latest News

Concerns were raised in Lok Sabha about gaps in the implementation of drinking water schemes under the Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA).

Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA)

• Launched:2019 by the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• Objective: To ensure water conservation, rainwater harvesting, and groundwater recharge in water-stressed regions.
• Core strategy: “Catch the Rain – Where it Falls, When it Falls”.
• Focus areas: Water conservation & rainwater harvesting, Renovation of traditional water bodies, Reuse and recharge of borewells, Watershed development and Intensive afforestation.

About Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)

• Launched: 2019 under the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• Objective: To provide Functional Household Tap Connection (FHTC) to every rural household by 2024 under the initiative Har Ghar Jal.
• The National Rural Drinking Water Program (NRDWP) was restructured and integrated into JJM.
• Approach:
  • Community-driven water management (Jan Andolan for water conservation).
  • Water source sustainability (rainwater harvesting, point recharge, greywater reuse).
  • Technology-based monitoring (IoT-based smart water meters).

Key Features of Jal Jeevan Mission

• Coverage: Aims to cover 19 crore rural households with tap water connections.
• Funding pattern: 90:10 (for Himalayan & NE states), 50:50 (for other states), 100% for UTs.
• Implementation model: Gram Panchayats, VWSCs (Village Water & Sanitation Committees) to take ownership.
• Water quality monitoring: IS 10500:2012 Standards for safe drinking water.
• Focus on Water-Stressed Areas: Special attention to drought-prone & water-deficient regions.
• Reuse of Water: Promotes greywater treatment & reuse in agriculture.

Jal Shakti Abhiyan FAQs

Q1. What is the Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA)?

Ans. Jal Shakti Abhiyan is a campaign launched by the Government of India in 2019 to promote water conservation and security in water-stressed districts through a time-bound, mission-mode approach.

Q2. How is Jal Shakti Abhiyan different from other water-related schemes?

Ans. Unlike long-term water schemes, JSA is a short-term, focused intervention led by central and state governments with active community participation. It complements ongoing schemes like Jal Jeevan Mission and Atal Bhujal Yojana.

Q3. Which ministry is responsible for implementing JSA?

Ans. The Ministry of Jal Shakti is responsible for implementing the Jal Shakti Abhiyan.

Q4. What role do local communities and stakeholders play in JSA?

Ans. JSA promotes a participatory approach where local communities, NGOs, gram panchayats, and stakeholders work together in water conservation efforts.

Q5. How does JSA support the Jal Jeevan Mission?

Ans. Jal Shakti Abhiyan helps in source sustainability for the Jal Jeevan Mission by ensuring long-term availability of water for rural households.

Source: PTI

Finance Commission Latest News

Bihar Reiterates Demand for Special Category Status Before the 16th Finance Commission

What is the Finance Commission?

• The Finance Commission (FC) is a constitutional body established under Article 280 of the Indian Constitution.
• It is constituted every five years by the President of India, it consists of:
  • One Chairman (Expert in public affairs).
  • Four Members (Experts in finance, economics, and administration).
• It ensures fiscal federalism and advises on public expenditure and economic policies.
• 16th Finance Commission: Established in 2023, the 16th Finance Commission is responsible for recommending the distribution of finances between the Centre and States for the period April 1, 2026 – March 31, 2031.

Finance Commission Functions

• Vertical devolution: Determines the share of states in the central divisible pool of taxes (e.g., GST, income tax).
• Horizontal distribution: Allocates funds among states based on fiscal needs, revenue-generating capacity, and developmental performance.
• Grants-in-Aid: Recommends grants to revenue-deficient states and specific sectors in need of financial support.

What is Special Category Status (SCS)?

• Special Category Status (SCS) is a classification given to states to provide them with additional central assistance due to economic and geographic disadvantages.
• Introduced in 1969 based on the Gadgil Formula, recommended by the 5th Finance Commission (Mahavir Tyagi).
• Initially granted to Assam, Jammu & Kashmir, and Nagaland.

Criteria for Special Category Status (Based on Gadgil Formula)

A state must have:

• Hilly and difficult terrain.
• Low population density and/or a significant tribal population.
• Strategic location along international borders.
• Economic and infrastructural backwardness.
• Non-viable state finances.

Evolution and States with SCS

• Initially given to three states (1969) and later expanded.
• Currently, 11 states have SCS:
  • Northeast states: Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Sikkim.
  • Hilly states: Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
  • Telangana (Granted due to bifurcation from Andhra Pradesh).
• States demanding SCS: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha.

Benefits of Special Category Status (SCS)

• Higher Central Assistance:
  • 90% of funds as grants and 10% as loans for Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS).
  • Non-SCS states get only 30% grants and 70% loans.
• Special plan assistance: Funding for projects of special importance.
• Non-lapsable funds: Unspent funds do not lapse at the end of the financial year.
• Tax concessions: Special tax incentives (though many have been subsumed under GST).

Finance Commission FAQs

Q1. What is the Finance Commission (FC)?

Ans. The Finance Commission is a constitutional body established under Article 280 of the Indian Constitution to recommend the distribution of financial resources between the Centre and States.

Q2. How often is the Finance Commission constituted?

Ans. The Finance Commission is constituted every five years or at an earlier time as deemed necessary by the President of India.

Q3. Who appoints the Finance Commission?

Ans. The President of India appoints the Finance Commission.

Q4. What is the composition of the Finance Commission?

Ans. The Commission consists of a Chairman and four other members appointed by the President. The qualifications and selection criteria are set by Parliament.

Q5. What is the latest Finance Commission?

Ans. The 15th Finance Commission (2021-26), chaired by N.K. Singh, submitted its report in 2020.

Source: PTI