Calendars in India, Types, History, Saka Samvat & Vikram Samvat

Calendars in India are systems used to organise days, weeks, months and years for social, religious, commercial and administrative purposes. India has a rich tradition of using different calendars due to its cultural, religious and regional diversity. These calendars are mainly based on the movement of the Sun, Moon, or a combination of both. Calendars in India, its types and Significance are discussed in detail in this article.

Calendars in India History

• The history of calendars in India is closely connected with the country’s traditions, religious practices, astronomy and regional customs. 
• Different communities developed or followed different systems for measuring time and fixing important dates.
• Indian calendars are mainly based on three astronomical systems: lunar, solar and luni-solar. A lunar calendar follows the phases of the Moon, a solar calendar is based on the apparent movement of the Sun, while a luni-solar calendar combines both systems.
• The need for accurate calendars became important for determining festivals, agricultural activities, religious ceremonies, seasons and administrative events. As a result, different calendar systems continued to develop across different parts of India.
• Vikram Samvat, Saka Samvat, Hijri Calendar and Gregorian Calendar are among the major calendar systems followed in India. Each has a different origin, structure and purpose.
• The Calendar Reform Committee, headed by eminent scientist Prof. Meghnad Saha, was formed in 1952 to examine the different calendar systems used in India and recommend a more uniform system.
• The committee studied the existing calendars and recommended a scientifically designed national calendar based on the Saka Era. The Government of India accepted the recommendations and the Saka Calendar was adopted as the National Calendar in 1957.

Types of Calendars Used in India

The types of calendars used in India can broadly be understood according to the astronomical system on which they are based.

• Lunar Calendars: These calendars are based mainly on the phases or movement of the Moon. A lunar year has 12 lunar months and is generally around 354 days, which is about 11 days shorter than the solar year. The Hijri Calendar is an important example of a purely lunar calendar.
• Solar Calendars: Solar calendars are based on the apparent movement of the Sun and maintain a closer relationship with the seasons. A solar year is approximately 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds. The Saka Calendar and Gregorian Calendar are examples of solar-based calendars.
• Luni-Solar Calendars: These calendars combine lunar months with the solar year. They use the phases of the Moon to determine months while making adjustments to remain broadly aligned with the solar year. Traditional Hindu calendars are generally based on the luni-solar system.

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Major Traditional Calendars in India

Major Traditional Calendars in India represent the country’s diverse cultural and religious traditions. The key traditional calendars, their origin, features and significance are discussed below. 

Vikram Samvat

• Vikram Samvat is one of the oldest and most widely recognised traditional calendar eras in India. It began around 57 BCE and is traditionally associated with Vikramaditya, the ruler of Ujjain, although historians have different views about its exact origin.
• It follows a luni-solar system and is closely connected with Hindu religious traditions. It is used to determine dates of important festivals and religious occasions in several parts of India and Nepal.
• A traditional Vikram Samvat year generally has 12 months and about 354 days. Since this is shorter than the solar year, adjustments are made through the addition of an intercalary month, known as Adhik Maas, when required.
• The months include Chaitra, Vaishakha, Jyeshtha, Ashadha, Shravana, Bhadrapada, Ashwin, Kartika, Margashirsha, Pausha, Magha and Phalguna.
• Each month is divided into two parts: Shukla Paksha, the bright lunar fortnight and Krishna Paksha, the dark lunar fortnight. These phases are important in determining many Hindu religious dates.
• The beginning of the year and the way months are calculated can vary across regions. For example, different traditions are followed in North India and Gujarat, reflecting the regional diversity of Indian calendar practices.

Saka Samvat

• Saka Samvat began in 78 CE and is another important calendar era associated with Indian history. Different historical traditions have been suggested regarding its origin and founder.
• The Saka system became particularly important after the Government of India adopted a reformed version of it as the National Calendar of India in 1957.
• The Saka Calendar is a solar calendar and follows a fixed annual structure. A normal year has 365 days, while a leap year has 366 days.
• Under the National Calendar, Chaitra is the first month. Chaitra 1 generally falls on March 22, or March 21 in a Gregorian leap year.
• The Saka Calendar is used along with the Gregorian Calendar for selected official government purposes, including government publications, official calendars and public communications.

Hijri Calendar

• The Hijri Calendar, also known as the Islamic Calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months. Its era begins in 622 CE, marking the Hijra or migration of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina.
• A Hijri year has approximately 354 days, making it shorter than the Gregorian solar year. Since no regular adjustment is made to match the solar seasons, Islamic months move through different seasons over time.
• Muharram is the first month of the Hijri Calendar, while Ramadan is the ninth month and is significant for fasting and religious observances.
• The Hijri Calendar is primarily used to determine important Islamic religious dates and festivals, including Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha.

Gregorian Calendar

• The Gregorian Calendar was introduced in October 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. It replaced the Julian Calendar because the earlier system had accumulated an error in calculating the length of the year.
• It is a solar calendar and begins on January 1. A normal year contains 365 days, while a leap year contains 366 days through the addition of an extra day in February.
• The Gregorian Calendar is the most widely used civil calendar in the world. In India, it is commonly used for administrative, commercial, educational, legal and everyday purposes.
• India therefore uses the Gregorian Calendar alongside several traditional calendars, allowing both modern civil requirements and cultural traditions to continue.

National Calendar of India

• The Saka Calendar is the National Calendar of India. It was adopted by the Government of India following the recommendations of the Calendar Reform Committee headed by Prof. Meghnad Saha.
• The Calendar Reform Committee was established in 1952 under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) to examine the different calendar systems used across India and develop a uniform and scientifically accurate calendar.
• After extensive study, the committee recommended a unified national calendar based on the Saka Era. The Government accepted the recommendations and introduced the National Calendar from 22 March 1957, corresponding to Chaitra 1, 1879 Saka Era.
• The National Calendar is based on the Saka Era, which began in 78 CE. Chaitra is its first month, followed by months such as Vaishakha, Jyeshtha, Ashadha and others.
• In a normal year, Chaitra has 30 days, while in a leap year it has 31 days. The remaining months have a fixed number of days according to the structure of the Saka Calendar.
• March 22 marks the beginning of the Saka year in a normal Gregorian year, while March 21 marks the beginning in a Gregorian leap year.
• The National Calendar is used along with the Gregorian Calendar for specific official purposes. These include the Gazette of India, All India Radio news broadcasts, government calendars and government communications issued for the public.
• The adoption of the Saka Calendar helped provide a uniform calendar system for official purposes while preserving the traditional Indian system of timekeeping. It also helped harmonise the diverse calendar practices that existed across different regions of the country.