UPSC Prelims Current Affairs for 12 July 2026

Khawthlangtuipui River

July 12, 2026

Khawthlangtuipui River Latest News

More than 80 families have been evacuated to safer locations after the Khawthlangtuipui river overflowed in Mizoram's Lunglei district bordering Bangladesh following incessant rainfall over the past week.

About Khawthlangtuipui River

The Khawthlangtuipui, also known as the Karnaphuli, is a transboundary river flowing through India and Bangladesh.
Course:
- It originates in the Lushai Hills of Mizoram, India.
- It extends approximately 270 kilometers southward through the Chittagong Hill Tracts of southeastern Bangladesh before discharging into the Bay of Bengal near the port city of Chittagong.
Principal tributaries include the Kawrpui River or Thega River, Tuichawng River, and Phairuang River.
It serves as an important source of irrigation, inland navigation, fisheries, and hydroelectric power for the region.
The river is home to the Kaptai Dam, Bangladesh's largest hydroelectric power project, which forms the Kaptai Lake, the country's largest artificial lake.

News: NIE

Khawthlangtuipui River FAQs

Q1: The Khawthlangtuipui (Karnaphuli) River flows through which two countries?

Ans: It flows through India and Bangladesh.

Q2: Where does the Khawthlangtuipui River originate?

Ans: It originates in the Lushai Hills of Mizoram, India.

Q3: Into which water body does the Khawthlangtuipui (Karnaphuli) River drain?

Ans: It drains into the Bay of Bengal.

Q4: Near which major city does the Khawthlangtuipui (Karnaphuli) River meet the Bay of Bengal?

Ans: It meets the Bay of Bengal near the port city of Chittagong (Chattogram).

Phu Quoc Island

July 12, 2026

Phu Quoc Island Latest News

At least 15 Indian tourists were killed after a boat carrying visitors capsized off Vietnam's southern island of Phu Quoc recently.

About Phu Quoc Island

Phu Quoc, also known as Pearl Island, is a Vietnamese island located in the Gulf of Thailand.
About the size of Singapore, this teardrop-shaped island anchors an archipelago of 22 islands, with the main island stretching 567 sq.km. and extending 49 km in length.
On the map, it lies closer to Cambodia than mainland Vietnam, making it the country’s largest island and one of the most geographically strategic.
It is famous for its endless stretches of white sand beaches.
A large part of the island is protected under Phú Quốc National Park, which is recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
The island is a major tourism destination, known for beach resorts, scuba diving, snorkeling, and nature-based tourism.
The highest point on the island reaches 630 meters and is located on Mount Chua.
Tropical Phu Quoc has just two seasons – six months of dry, sunny weather between November and April and six rainy months between May and October.
The island’s cultural identity remains deeply rooted in its maritime heritage, with traditional fishing villages like Ham Ninh maintaining age-old customs.
It is also famous for producing fish sauce (nước mắm) and black pepper, both of which are important local products.

News: MC

Phu Quoc Island FAQs

Q1: Where is Phu Quoc Island located?

Ans: It is located in the Gulf of Thailand.

Q2: Which country does Phu Quoc Island belong to?

Ans: Vietnam.

Q3: What is another name for Phu Quoc Island?

Ans: It is also known as the Pearl Island.

Q4: Which protected area covers a large part of Phu Quoc Island?

Ans: Phú Quốc National Park.

Lymphatic Filariasis

July 12, 2026

Lymphatic Filariasis Latest News

The West Bengal Health Department recently started a Mass Drug Administration (MDA) drive against filariasis (commonly known as elephantiasis) and aims to eliminate the disease in the State by 2030.

About Lymphatic Filariasis

Lymphatic filariasis (LF), commonly known as elephantiasis, is a parasitic infection and a neglected tropical disease.
It can cause severe swelling in the legs and other parts of the body.

Lymphatic Filariasis Cause

It is caused by infection with parasites classified as nematodes (roundworms) of the family Filariodidea. T
There are 3 types of these thread-like filarial worms:
- Wuchereria bancrofti, which is responsible for 90% of the cases.
- Brugia malayi, which causes most of the remainder of the cases.
- Brugia timori, which also causes the disease.

Lymphatic Filariasis Transmission

It is a vector-borne disease transmitted by the female Culex mosquito.
Adult worms nest in the lymphatic vessels and disrupt the normal function of the lymphatic system, where they produce millions of microfilariae (immature larvae) that circulate in the blood.
In general, a person won’t get filariasis from a single mosquito bite.
It usually takes repeated mosquito bites over several months (or even years) for a person to get the condition.

Lymphatic Filariasis Symptoms

The majority of infections are asymptomatic, but in chronic conditions it leads to lymphoedema (tissue swelling) or elephantiasis (skin/tissue thickening) of limbs and hydrocele (scrotal swelling).

Lymphatic Filariasis Treatment

Elimination of lymphatic filariasis is possible by stopping the spread of the infection through preventive chemotherapy.
The WHO-recommended preventive chemotherapy strategy for lymphatic filariasis elimination is mass drug administration (MDA).
MDA involves administering an annual dose of medicines to the entire at-risk population.

News: TH

Lymphatic Filariasis FAQs

Q1: What is Lymphatic Filariasis (LF)?

Ans: It is a parasitic infection and a neglected tropical disease, commonly known as elephantiasis.

Q2: What causes Lymphatic Filariasis?

Ans: It is caused by filarial nematodes (roundworms) of the family Filarioidea.

Q3: How is Lymphatic Filariasis commonly transmitted?

Ans: Through repeated bites of infected female Culex mosquitoes.

Q4: How can Lymphatic Filariasis be eliminated?

Ans: By stopping the spread of infection through preventive chemotherapy.

Sheathia meghalayensis

July 12, 2026

Sheathia meghalayensis Latest News

Researchers recently discovered a new species of freshwater red algae named Sheathia meghalayensis.

About Sheathia meghalayensis

It is a new species of freshwater red algae.
It was discovered near Crinoline Waterfalls in East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya.
Freshwater red algae are highly sensitive organisms that act as critical bioindicators of pristine, undisturbed aquatic ecosystems.
Such algae thrive only in clean, oxygen-rich freshwater, making them important indicators of healthy river ecosystems.
They are also known to produce bioactive compounds with antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumour properties.
Members of this group are also valued for compounds used in pharmaceuticals, nutrition, and biotechnology.
Previously, only two species of Sheathia (Sheathia indonepalensis and Sheathia assamica) had been discovered from the Northeast, both in Assam.
Researchers found the new algae growing on submerged rocks in a cool, crystal-clear stream nearly 1,600 metres above sea level.
The researchers have proposed that Sheathia meghalayensis be classified as Critically Endangered, noting that it is known from only a single location in Meghalaya, occupies an estimated area of just four square kilometres and has fewer than 100 mature individuals.

News: HUB

Sheathia meghalayensis FAQs

Q1: What is Sheathia meghalayensis?

Ans: It is a newly discovered species of freshwater red algae.

Q2: Where was Sheathia meghalayensis discovered?

Ans: It was discovered near Crinoline Waterfalls in East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya.

Q3: Why are freshwater red algae considered important bioindicators?

Ans: They thrive only in clean, oxygen-rich freshwater, indicating healthy and undisturbed aquatic ecosystems.

Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4)

July 12, 2026

Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4) Latest News

A team of scientists has, for the first time in India, identified and genetically characterised Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4) that often causes rapid death in captive psittacine birds.

About Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4)

It is an enveloped single-strand RNA virus that infects parrots and other psittacine birds (such as macaws, cockatoos, parakeets, and conures).
It belongs to the genus Orthobornavirus in the family Bornaviridae.
PaBV-4 is one of several parrot bornavirus species and is among the most commonly detected in captive parrots worldwide.
PaBV causes proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), a largely fatal condition affecting birds' digestive and nervous systems.
Affected birds may exhibit:
- Weight loss despite a normal appetite.
- Regurgitation or vomiting.
- Passage of undigested seeds in droppings.
- Enlargement (dilatation) of the proventriculus (the glandular stomach).
- Neurological signs such as tremors, loss of coordination (ataxia), seizures, or paralysis.
Transmission
- The virus is believed to spread mainly through contact with infected birds or their droppings and feather dust, although the exact routes of transmission are not yet fully understood.
- Infected birds may carry and shed the virus without showing clinical signs, facilitating its spread.
Treatment and Prevention:
- There is currently no specific antiviral treatment or vaccine for PaBV-4.
- Management focuses on supportive care, reducing inflammation, and maintaining nutrition.
- Prevention relies on strict biosecurity, quarantine of new birds, routine health screening, and minimizing contact between infected and healthy birds.

News: TH

Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4) FAQs

Q1: What is Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4)?

Ans: It is an enveloped single-stranded RNA virus that infects parrots and other psittacine birds.

Q2: Which birds are primarily affected by Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4)?

Ans: Parrots and other psittacine birds, such as macaws, cockatoos, parakeets, and conures.

Q3: Which disease is caused by Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4)?

Ans: Proventricular Dilatation Disease (PDD).

Q4: Which body systems are primarily affected by Proventricular Dilatation Disease (PDD)?

Ans: The digestive and nervous systems.

Q5: Is there a specific antiviral treatment for Parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4)?

Ans: No. There is currently no specific antiviral treatment.

Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary

July 12, 2026

Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary Latest News

Researchers recently discovered a new disease-causing fungal genus named Hyalokamalomyces during a research on another plant disease at the Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary in Chandauli.

About Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary

It is located in the Chandauli district of Uttar Pradesh.
It is spread over an area of 78 sq.km and lies on the Naugarh and Vijaigarh hillocks on the north slope of the Kaimur Range.
It is named after the Chandraprabha River, meaning ‘The Luminescence of Moon’.
- The river is a tributary of the Karamnasha River, and both flow through the forest to finally meet the Ganges.
In the early 18th century, this area became a hunting ground for the rulers of Varanasi, but eventually, in 1957, the sanctuary was established here.
Asiatic lions were introduced at Chandra Prabha in 1958.
The exercise was successful in the beginning, with the number of lions increasing from three to eleven by 1969. However, the following year the lions were found missing.
The predominant geological formations consist of limestone and sandstone, exhibiting a high thermal mass that moderates temperature fluctuations within the habitat.
Vegetation: The sanctuary's vegetation is predominantly deciduous forest, interspersed with grasslands, which supports a diverse range of species.
Flora:
- Tendu, Blue Berries, Mahua, Goose-berry, Palash, Sal, Neem, Semal, and many other varieties of plantation are found in abundance.
- Unique and rare medicinal plants used in the formulation of Ayurvedic medicines like Musli, Chitawar, Ashwagandha, Chirata, Sarpgandha, etc. are also found.
Fauna:
- Wild animals that dot this sanctuary include Leopard, Sloth bear, Chinkara/Cheetal, Hyena, Fox, Jackal, etc.
- Many colourful and different species of birds, like Peacock, Red Jungle Fowl, Quail, Partridge, Eagle, Vulture, Wild Mynah, Parakeet, Cuckoo, Barn Owl and the Bulbul are natural inhabitants of this sanctuary.

News: ETVB

Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary FAQs

Q1: Where is Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary located?

Ans: It is located in the Chandauli district of Uttar Pradesh.

Q2: On which hillocks is Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary situated?

Ans: It lies on the Naugarh and Vijaigarh hillocks.

Q3: After which river is Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary named?

Ans: It is named after the Chandraprabha River.

Q4: What type of vegetation dominates Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary?

Ans: It is predominantly covered by deciduous forests interspersed with grasslands.

Trachynotothrips vyaghravahini

July 12, 2026

Trachynotothrips vyaghravahini Latest News

Researchers recently discovered a new species of insect named Trachynotothrips vyaghravahini in the biodiversity-rich Western Ghats of Karnataka.

About Trachynotothrips vyaghravahini

It is a new species of insect belonging to the group known as thrips.
It was discovered inside the bright flowers of a tropical plant in the biodiversity-rich Western Ghats of Karnataka.
It was named vyaghravahini, which is derived from the ancient Sanskrit words 'vyaghra' (meaning tiger) and 'vahini' (meaning flowing river).
This name is a direct nod to the specific location where the insect was found, Pilikula, which historically was known as a river where wild tigers frequently came to drink water.
Unlike similar species, the newly discovered species has a uniformly pale midsection without any brown stripes and entirely pale hind legs.
Furthermore, it lacks the distinct spine-like hairs on the sides of its abdomen and features a different arrangement of microscopic bristles on its lower body compared to its insect cousins.

What are Thrips?

Thrips are minute, slender-bodied insects less than 1/16 inch to about 3/16 inch in length.
Adults that range in color from yellow to black and have four long, narrow, fringed wings.
The young nymphs are smaller, wingless, and range in color from yellow to white.
Many thrips are plant feeders attacking flowers, leaves, fruit, twigs, or buds.
Thrips are rarely seen because of their small size.
The insects feed by puncturing the surface of the plant parts with their single large mandible and slurping the plant juices that seep from the wound.
Flowers or leaves may develop silvery streaks. Heavily infested leaves appear brownish or silvery, and growing points may become contorted.
Some species of thrips leave sooty spots of black fecal matter on the leaves.
Thrips also vector plant diseases.
A few species are beneficial predators of mites and small insects including other thrips, and some feed on fungal spores.

News: RM

Trachynotothrips vyaghravahini FAQs

Q1: What is Trachynotothrips vyaghravahini?

Ans: It is a newly discovered species of thrips, a group of tiny insects.

Q2: Where was Trachynotothrips vyaghravahini discovered?

Ans: It was discovered inside the bright flowers of a tropical plant in the Western Ghats of Karnataka.

Q3: Does Trachynotothrips vyaghravahini have brown stripes on its midsection?

Ans: No. It has a uniformly pale midsection without brown stripes.

Manas Tiger Reserve

July 12, 2026

Manas Tiger Reserve Latest News

Recently, it was observed that, over 30 years, 14 invasive plant species have been a major factor behind losing more than 43% of its grassland cover of Manas Tiger Reserve.

About Manas Tiger Reserve

Location: It is located in the state of Assam.
Borders
- To the north, it is separated from the Royal Manas National Park of Bhutan by the River Manas and its tributaries- Beki and Hakua;
- To the west, it is separated from the Buxa Tiger Reserve of West Bengal by the River Sankosh.
It has a unique distinction of being a Natural World Heritage Site, an Elephant Reserve, a Biosphere Reserve and an Important Bird Area.
Vegetation: It consists of scrub forests, semi-evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, interspersed with grasslands and riparian vegetation (in core area).
Flora: Sal (Shorea robusta), alluvial savannah woodlands, Riparian fringing forest and Khair-Sisoo forests.
Fauna: It serves as a crucial habitat for several rare and endangered species, including the tiger, greater one-horned rhino, swamp deer, pygmy hog, and Bengal florican.

Source: TH

Manas Tiger Reserve FAQs

Q1: Manas Tiger Reserve is located in which state?

Ans: Assam

Q2: Manas Tiger Reserve is situated on the foothills of which mountain range?

Ans: Himalayas / Bordering Bhutan

Global Liveability Index

July 12, 2026

Global Liveability Index Latest News

Recently, Global Liveability Index 2026 was released and Delhi at 120 among 173 cities.

About Global Liveability Index

It is published by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU).
Its purpose is to evaluate how suitable cities are for living by measuring everyday living conditions rather than economic size or tourist popularity.
Coverage: It assesses 173 cities across the world across 30 indicators.
Parameters: It is grouped into five categories namely
- Stability (25%)
- Healthcare (20%)
- Culture & Environment (25%)
- Education (10%)
- Infrastructure (20%)
Score: It uses a 1–100 scale.

Key Highlights of Global Liveability Index

The report finds that although the global average liveability score remained unchanged at 76.1 out of 100.
Among the five categories, healthcare registered the strongest year-on-year improvement, increasing by an average of 0.74 points.
Global Top Cities: Copenhagen (Denmark) remains the world's most liveable city, edging out Vienna (Austria) and Melbourne (Australia).
India: New Delhi ranked 120, followed by Mumbai (121), Chennai (123), and Bengaluru (127).

Source: TOI

Global Liveability Index FAQs

Q1: The Global Liveability Index is published by which organization?

Ans: Economist Intelligence Unit - EIU

Q2: How many categories are used to rank cities in Global Liveability Index?

Ans: 5 Categories

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

July 12, 2026

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) Latest News

Prime Minister Narendra Modi on August 29, 2025, nominated two people as new members of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and re-nominated three existing members for three years.

About National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

Establishment: The NDMA, established under the Disaster Management Act, 2005, is the country's apex body for disaster management and is chaired ex officio by the Prime Minister of India.
Objectives: NDMA is responsible for laying down the national policies, plans, and guidelines for disaster management, coordinating and enforcing implementation of these policies, and approving plans developed by ministries, states, and other agencies to ensure integrated responses to disasters.
Vision: NDMA's vision is to build a safer and disaster-resilient India through proactive, technology-driven, and sustainable strategies involving all stakeholders.

NDMA Organisation Structure

Composition: The NDMA is chaired by the Prime Minister of India, assisted by a Vice-Chairperson (Cabinet Minister rank) and up to eight Members (Minister of State rank).
Divisions: It operates through specialized divisions, including Policy & Plans, Mitigation, Operations, Communications & IT, Administration, and Finance.
Institutional Mechanism: At the state and district levels, State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) and District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) function under NDMA’s overall framework and guidelines.

NDMA Functions and Responsibilities

NDMA, as the apex body, is mandated to lay down the policies, plans and guidelines for Disaster Management to ensure timely and effective response to disasters. Towards this, it has the following responsibilities:-

Laying down policies, approving the National Disaster Management Plan.
Framing guidelines for central and state authorities, integrating mitigation measures into development plans.
Coordinating the enforcement and implementation of disaster management policies and plans.
Recommending provision of funds for mitigation efforts and capacity building.
Supporting international disaster relief as directed by the central government.
Overseeing the functioning of the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM).
Training officials, conducting preparedness drills, and developing community resilience strategies.

Source: TH

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) FAQs

Q1: Who heads the National Disaster Management Authority in India?

Ans: The National Disaster Management Authority of India is headed by the Prime Minister.

Q2: Under which Ministry is NDMA?

Ans: NDMA operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Q3: What are the 12 natural disasters under NDMA?

Ans: NDMA covers disasters like floods, earthquakes, cyclones, droughts, landslides, avalanches, tsunamis, forest fires, pest attacks, nuclear, chemical, and biological emergencies.

Q4: Where is the headquarter of NDMA?

Ans: NDMA headquarters is located in New Delhi, India.

Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros

July 12, 2026

Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros Latest News

Recently, the central government approved a landmark conservation initiative to create a DNA-based indexing system for the greater one-horned rhinoceros.

About Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros

The greater one-horned rhino, also known as Indian rhinoceros, is the largest of the three Asian rhinos.
Habitat: It is found in semi-aquatic and often takes up residence in swamps, forests, riversides, and anywhere that is near nutritious mineral licks.
Distribution
- It can be found in India and Nepal, particularly in the foothills of the Himalayas.
- In the past, Greater one-horned rhinos roamed freely in the floodplains and forests alongside the Brahmaputra, Ganges, and Indus River valley.
- Kaziranga National Park in Assam, India, contains the largest population.
Features
- It is identified by a single black horn and a grey-brown hide with skin folds, which gives it an armor-plated appearance.
- The species is solitary, except for females with small calves. Males maintain loosely defended territories.
- Diet: Indian rhinos are herbivores (graminivores, folivores, frugivores, lignivores). They eat grass, leaves, fruit, branches, aquatic plants, as well as cultivated crops.
- Threats: Hunting is largely responsible for the Indian rhino decline.

Conservation Status
- IUCN: Vulnerable

Source: NIE

Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros FAQs

Q1: The scientific name of Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros is?

Ans: Rhinoceros unicornis

Q2: One-Horned Rhinoceros is found in which habitat type?

Ans: All grasslands and riverine forests

Vikramshila University

July 12, 2026

Vikramshila University Latest News

Vikramshila University Set for Revival in Bihar

Why in the News?

After Nalanda University, another ancient centre of learning in Bihar—Vikramshila University—is set for revival.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is currently developing the ancient site to boost tourism.
The Bihar government has identified 202.14 acres in Antichak village, Bhagalpur, for establishing a Central University at the historic site.
The project was approved by the Centre in 2015 with an initial budget of ₹500 crore, but progress was delayed due to land acquisition issues.

About Vikramshila University

Location: Vikramshila University was situated in Bhagalpur, Bihar, along the banks of the river Ganges, making it a prominent historical site in eastern India.
Founder: The university was established by King Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty during the late 8th to early 9th century AD, as a response to the perceived decline in educational standards at Nalanda University.
Significance:
- Vikramshila University emerged as a leading hub for Tantric Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism, playing a pivotal role in the spread of these traditions.
- The university distinguished itself by specializing in tantric and occult studies, setting it apart from Nalanda University, which offered a broader curriculum.
- During King Dharmapala’s reign, Vikramshila exerted influence over Nalanda’s affairs, highlighting its administrative and academic dominance at the time.
- It drew over 1000 students and 100 teachers from across India and beyond, reflecting its international reputation as a center of learning.
- The institution produced renowned scholars like Atisa Dipankara, who significantly contributed to establishing Buddhism in Tibet.
Features:
- Vikramshila University boasted a central stupa encircled by 208 cells, designed to house student-monks engaged in study and meditation.
- It included a library equipped with a unique cooling system, channeling water from a nearby reservoir to preserve delicate manuscripts.
- The curriculum encompassed a wide range of subjects, such as theology, philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, logic, and tantras, showcasing its academic diversity.
- The university’s administration was overseen by a Kulpati or Mahasthavir, a distinctive leadership role that ensured its smooth functioning.
Decline: Vikramshila University met its end when it was destroyed by Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji around 1203 AD, an event that also marked the downfall of Nalanda University.

Vikramshila University FAQs

Q1. What was Vikramshila University?

Ans. Vikramshila University was an ancient Buddhist learning center in Bihar, India, established by King Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty in the 8th–9th century CE. It was a major center for Buddhist studies, particularly for Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana).

Q2. Where was Vikramshila University located?

Ans. It was situated at Antichak in Bhagalpur district, Bihar, on the banks of the Ganges River.

Q3. Why was Vikramshila University established?

Ans. It was established to revive and strengthen Buddhist learning, which was perceived to be declining at Nalanda University. It became a prominent center for advanced Buddhist education.

Q4. What subjects were taught at Vikramshila University?

Ans. The university specialized in Buddhist philosophy, logic, grammar, metaphysics, and Tantra (Vajrayana Buddhism). It also had studies in Sanskrit, law, and other traditional sciences.

Source: IE

Nagara style

July 12, 2026

About the Nagara style

Nagara architecture is a classical architecture of temple design in northern India, contrasted with Dravida architecture in southern India.
Nagara temples have a shikhara (mountain peak) over the garbha griha (sanctum sanctorum), a circumambulatory passage around it, and one or more mandapas (halls).
Shikhara is a symbolic representation of the cosmic order and the divine presence.
There are five modes of shikhara design: Valabhi, Phamsana, Latina, Shekhari, and Bhumija.
- Valabhi and Phamsana are Early Nagara modes, derived from barrel-roofed wooden structures.
- Latina is a single, slightly curved tower with four equal sides, ominant for three centuries.
- Shekhari and Bhumija are composite Latinas with attached sub-spires or miniature spires, creating a complex and ornate appearance.
These modes are scholastic classifications, not rigid categories. There is much variation and innovation within and across these modes.

Q1) What is shikhara?

In North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and also above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic feature of the Hindu temple in the north.

Source: What is the Nagara style, in which Ayodhya’s Ram temple is being built