Mural Painting, Evolution, Features, Major Schools, Significance

Mural painting is a form of art done on the walls and ceilings of rock-cut architecture and structural temples. It is created using distinctive methods like fresco-buono (wet technique) and fresco-secco (dry technique). The history of mural paintings in India dates back to the second century BCE and has been practised at a number of places, the most well-known of which are Panamalai and Sittanavasal in Tamil Nadu, Ajanta and Ellora in Maharashtra, and Bagh in Madhya Pradesh.

The Ajanta caves consist of some of the finest surviving examples of Indian art with depictions of the Buddha and the Jātaka tales. With evolving patronage, mural art in India diversified through various schools such as Chola, Vijayanagar, Nayaka, and Kerala, each adding unique regional and historical elements to this vibrant artistic heritage.

Mural Painting Evolution

Indian mural painting has a long history, beginning with prehistoric rock paintings such as Bhimbetka. It developed further with Buddhist cave murals at Ajanta, where paintings from the 2nd–1st centuries BCE and later 5th–6th century CE phases depict Jataka stories, Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

• During the medieval period, mural traditions expanded into Hindu and Jain religious spaces, seen at sites such as Sittanavasal, Badami, Brihadisvara and Lepakshi, alongside distinctive Kerala temple murals.
• In the modern period, artists associated with Santiniketan revived mural painting by combining classical Indian traditions with contemporary themes.

Mural Painting Features

Mural paintings are more than just surface-level embellishments; they are an essential part of the building's architecture, which often adds to its grandeur and narrative. Murals were called bhittichitra in Indian literature.

Techniques Used in Mural Painting

The techniques used in mural painting depend on the wall surface, plaster, pigments, binding materials, and regional practice. There are two techniques used basically in mural painting. They are Fresco-buno and Fresco-secco.

• Fresco-buono: It is a wet technique. After combining the powder colours with water, they are applied to the wall's lime surface while still wet and covered with fine plaster. The colours penetrate deeper into the pores.
  • This is the Italian technique used in the famous mural paintings of the Sistine Chapel by Michael Angelo.
• Fresco-secco: It is a dry technique. The powder colours are mixed with a vegetable substance and applied to the dry wall, which has been treated with fine plaster. Indian mural painting developed as a dry technique.

Materials Used in Mural Painting

Painters in ancient India possessed considerable knowledge of the materials and tools required for mural painting. They used brushes of different sizes, fine bamboo rods and naturally derived pigments to create detailed compositions.

• Brushes: Brushes, traditionally known as tulika, were made using squirrel hair. Different brushes served different purposes.
  • Kurchaka: A large brush used for applying broad washes of colour to the painted surface.
  • Tulika: A fine brush used for delicate detailing and unmilana, the finishing process associated with bringing a figure’s eyes to life.
• Bamboo Rods: Fine bamboo rods were used to draw outlines and define the contours of figures.
• Natural Pigments: Colours were obtained from vegetable and mineral sources. Common examples included gairika (red), nili (blue), shuddha (white), kajjala (black) and haritala (yellow).
• Binding Medium: Vajralepa was used as a binding material to help colours adhere to the painted surface.

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Mural Painting Major Schools

The continuity in style and technique of Indian mural paintings can be traced from the Ajanta from the 4th century to the 19th century in Mysore. There are several changes in the subjects portrayed and also the treatment of figures. The early schools of Indian painting were painterly in quality, whereas the later ones are sculptural in treatment.

Ajanta Mural Painting

Ajanta developed from the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE, patronised by the Satavahanas, Vakatakas, and Guptas, and later abandoned.

• Artistic Excellence: The walls of the Ajanta Chaitya halls were entirely covered with paintings. The painters created the figures through their imagination, showing great mastery of human and animal forms.
• Famous Caves: The paintings in Caves 1 and 2 display high merit in line, colouring, treatment, and expression of feelings and emotions.
  • The events surrounding Buddha's birth, life, and death are recounted. A huge painting of a Bodhisattva can be found in Cave 2.
  • The shadangas, or six canons, are used to create these paintings.
• Jataka Tales: The jatakas given include Hansa jataka, Vidhurapandita jataka, Ruru Jataka, PurnaAvadhana, Mahajanaka, Mahakapi jataka, and many others, all of which are elegantly and eloquently told.
  • Panels at Cave 19 depict Buddha with his begging bowl before his son Rahula and wife Yashodhara.
• Cultural Influence: The Ajanta tradition made its way to Sri Lanka's Sigiriya after passing through South India. The post-Ajanta era is represented in the paintings found in the Bagh caves. Consequently, the Ajanta style persisted until the tenth century CE.

Badami Murals

The Badami murals are important examples of early medieval Indian mural painting, dating to the 6th century CE. Located in the rock-cut cave temples of Badami in Karnataka, they were created under the patronage of the Early Chalukyas and represent an extension of the Ajanta mural tradition into the Deccan.

• Historical Background: Badami was the capital of the Early Chalukyan dynasty, which ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE. Chalukya king Mangalesha patronised the excavation of the caves. 
  • An inscription in Cave 4 mentions 578–579 CE and the dedication of an image of Vishnu.
• Themes and Subjects: The surviving paintings depict palace scenes, including Kirtivarman seated with his wife and feudatories watching a dance performance. Figures of Indra and his retinue are also depicted in the panel.
• Artistic Features: The murals are characterised by sinuous lines, fluid forms and compact compositions. The gracefully modelled faces, large eye sockets, half-closed eyes and protruding lips demonstrate the artists’ ability to create volume through simple line treatment.
• Influence of Ajanta: The paintings continue the Ajanta tradition through their graceful figures, flowing outlines and expressive modelling. They demonstrate the development of mural painting in South India during the 6th century CE.

Pallava Paintings

Mahendravarman (Pallavas of the Kanchi) was a great patron of painting and earned the title of chitrakarapuli - a tiger among painters. The Pallava king Rajsimha was a patron of the paintings in the temple of Kanchipuram.

• Features: The Ajanta heritage is still present in the figures' presentation, materials used, and workmanship. Only traces of paintings remain now, which depict Somaskanda. 
• • Faces are round and large. Compared to paintings from earlier eras, the lines are more ornamented and rhythmic.
  • The torso's representation is extended but nevertheless follows the prior sculptural form.
• Examples: Painting artwork from the Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchi, and Panamalai temples witnesses the magnificent style of Pallava art.

Pandya Mural Paintings

The mural paintings of the Pandya Dynasty are an important part of early medieval South Indian art, reflecting the religious beliefs and artistic skills of the Pandya period.

• Important Sites: The major surviving examples are the Jain caves at Sittanavasal, near Pudukkottai, and the caves at Tirumalaipuram, Tamil Nadu.
• Religious Themes: Sittanavasal paintings are associated with Jain traditions, depicting a lotus pond, aquatic life, and figures collecting flowers. These scenes reflect the artists’ close observation of nature.
• Depiction of Figures: The veranda pillars feature dancing celestial nymphs. Their graceful movements, expressive faces, and supple limbs demonstrate the artists’ skill in portraying human figures.
• Artistic Style: The paintings use firm, rhythmic outlines, often in vermilion red against a lighter background. Figures are modelled in yellow, with graceful forms and a sense of movement.

Rashtrakuta Murals

The Kailasa cave at Ellora is a magnificent work of 8th-century Rashtrakuta dynasty architecture, sculpted out of living rock.

• Themes: The mandapas (pillared halls) of Ellora are covered in paintings that depict a variety of Shiva Purana themes and floral, animal, and bird patterns.
  • Dancing Shiva is the famous panel of Ellora.
• Special Features: In the 12th century CE, the new features that formed the stylistic elements of Jain manuscript paintings were the peculiar placement of the eyes and the angular nose in three-quarter view.

Cholas Murals

Early Chola painting remnants may be found in Malayadipatti, Narthamalai, and other locations. A portrait of the patron Rajaraja and his master Kuruvar, stories about Lord Shiva, dancing figures, etc., are all depicted in the paintings.

• Brihadisvara Temple at Tanjore: A real treasure-house of the art of Chola painters. The paintings are in the corridor that surrounds the shikhara. These paintings unveiled a new stage in South Indian painting history.
  • These walls are covered in two layers of paintings. Originally, the entire wall and ceiling were adorned with magnificent Raja-era paintings, but further layers were added during the Nayaka dynasty.
  • These paintings continue to serve as a bridge between the Pallava (before the Chola) and Vijayanagar Empire (later than the Chola) periods and showcase the exquisite style of the South Indian painting tradition.
  • Shiva as Yoga-Dakshinamurthy and the jewelled celestials, as well as the dancing apsaras (celestials), are the masterpieces. Although the colours are muted and gentle, the lines are powerful and highly emotive.

Vijayanagar Paintings

The Vijayanagar style of painting evolved as an extension of the earlier artistic traditions of the Chola and Pandyan periods. The murals at Tiruparakunram, located near Trichy and created in the 14th century, showcase the initial phase of this distinctive style. 

• Virupaksha temple: At the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, the mandapa ceiling is painted with images from the Ramayana and Mahabharata as well as events from the dynasty's past.
  • The murals show the sage Vidyaranya's procession. Other noteworthy panels are those depicting the scene of Girija Kalyana, Narasimha, and Tripurantaka.
• Features: The faces of the figures are shown in profile, with large frontal eyes. The figures have narrow waists.
• The post-Vijayanagara paintings are found in the Veerabhadra temple in Lepakshi.

Nayaka Paintings

Following the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Nayaka rulers of Madurai and Thanjavur continued its mural painting tradition, introducing regional variations. Their paintings provide valuable insights into the religious beliefs, artistic practices and social life of the period.

• Sites: Paintings of the Raghunatha Nayaka period are seen at Tanjore, Tenkasai, Perur, and other places.
• Patronage: Tirumala Nayaka of Madurai and Raghunatha Nayaka of Thanjavur supported artistic activities and temple decoration.
• Themes: Early murals illustrate events from the life of Vardhaman Mahavira. The Nayaka period paintings portray episodes from the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and various scenes from Krishna-leela.
• Artistic Features: Figures are often shown in profile against flat backgrounds, with elaborate costumes, ornaments and dynamic compositions.
  • One of the panels in Tiruvarur tells the Muchukunda story. Panels of paintings depicting stories about Shiva and Vishnu, such as Shiva as Bhikshatana Murti and Vishnu as Mohini, may be seen in Chidambaram.

Mural Painting Kerala

Kerala mural painting flourished between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, developing a distinctive style influenced by the Vijayanagara and Nayaka schools, Kathakali and kalam ezhuthu (ritual floor painting). These murals adorn temple walls, cloisters and palaces, reflecting regional religious traditions.

• Features: Vibrant, luminous colours, expressive figures and three-dimensional modelling distinguish Kerala murals.
• Themes: Paintings primarily depict Hindu mythology, especially episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, drawing inspiration from local and oral traditions.
• Architecture: Heavy rainfall encouraged the use of timber in traditional Kerala temples, while interiors featured murals and wood carvings.
• Major Sites: Mattancherry Palace, Padmanabhapuram Palace, Padmanabhaswamy Temple, Pundareekapuram Krishna Temple and Vadakkunnathan Temple showcase this tradition.

Mysore Paintings

Mysore murals represent the later phase of India's mural painting tradition, flourishing under the Wodeyar rulers after the fall of Tipu Sultan. These paintings are important for their historical narratives, decorative richness and distinctive artistic style.

• Historical Themes: The Srirangapatna palace, commonly associated with Tipu Sultan, contains large murals depicting the Mysore War between Tipu Sultan and the British. Other panels portray contemporary rulers and nawabs, serving as valuable historical records.
• Royal Patronage: The tradition continued under the Wodeyar dynasty, which supported mural painting in palaces and temples.
• Artistic Features: Mysore-style murals feature diverse themes, soft colours, decorative jewellery and intricate textile patterns.
  • Gold foil enhances the ornamental details of jewellery and garments.
• Important Centres: Mysore, Mudukutore, Sibi and Sira preserve notable examples of this tradition.

Famous Mural Paintings

Indian mural paintings are artworks created on walls, ceilings, and rock surfaces. They depict religious narratives, cultural traditions, royal life, and the artistic achievements of different periods.

• Padmapani Bodhisattva: A famous Buddhist mural in the Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra, depicting Bodhisattva Padmapani holding a lotus. The painting is admired for its graceful posture, expressive face, delicate ornaments, and subtle use of colours.
• Vajrapani Bodhisattva: Another renowned mural at the Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra, portraying Bodhisattva Vajrapani, traditionally associated with the protection of Buddha. It demonstrates the artists’ skill in depicting facial expressions, jewellery, and human figures.
• Jataka Tales: These murals in the Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra, illustrate stories of Buddha’s previous births and convey Buddhist moral values. They also provide insights into the social life, clothing, architecture, and customs of ancient India.
• Kirtivarman’s Court Scene: Found in the Badami Caves, Karnataka, this mural depicts King Kirtivarman, his wife, and courtiers watching a dance performance. It is notable for its fluid outlines, expressive faces, and compact composition, reflecting the artistic tradition of the Early Chalukyas.
• Lotus Pond Scene: Located at Sittanavasal, Tamil Nadu, this famous mural depicts a pond filled with lotuses, fish, and other aquatic life, along with people collecting flowers. Associated with Jain traditions, it reflects the importance of nature and religious symbolism in Indian art.
• Dancing Celestial Nymphs: These paintings at Sittanavasal, Tamil Nadu, portray graceful female figures in dance poses. Their flowing forms and expressive movements demonstrate the artists’ ability to represent rhythm and elegance through mural painting.

Mural Paintings Significance

Indian mural paintings are significant not merely as decorative art but as visual records of religion, society, culture, and artistic traditions. From the Buddhist murals of Ajanta to the temple and palace murals of Kerala, they preserve ideas and everyday life across different historical periods.

• Religious Expression: Murals visually communicate Buddhist, Hindu, and other religious narratives, making philosophical and sacred ideas accessible through images. Ajanta, for instance, depicts the Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and Jataka stories.
• Historical Source: Murals provide evidence about contemporary society, clothing, ornaments, occupations, architecture, and customs, making them valuable sources for reconstructing cultural history.
• Integration with Architecture: Mural painting forms a close relationship between art and architectural space, with paintings adapting to walls, ceilings, and other permanent surfaces rather than existing as independent artworks.
• Heritage and Tourism: Major mural sites contribute to India's cultural heritage and heritage tourism, while also highlighting the need for specialised conservation of fragile painted surfaces.