Articles on 21 October 2025

by Vajiram & Ravi - 21 October 2025

Vajiram & Ravi provides Daily articles for 21 October 2025, tailored for aspirants. We cover all relevant news and events crucial for the exam, ensuring you stay updated & well-prepared.

7th Central Pay Commission, Composition, Objectives, Implications

October 21, 2025
7th Central Pay Commission

The 7th Pay Commission was set up by the UPA Government on 28 February 2014 to review and revise the salary structure of Central Government employees and pensioners. It was chaired by Justice Ashok Kumar Mathur and was headquartered in New Delhi. The Commission was given 18 months to complete its study and submit its report.

The 7th CPC submitted its final report on 19 November 2015, laying out recommendations that directly impacted over 1 crore Central Government employees and pensioners, including 13,86,171 defence personnel.

7th Pay Commission Background and Purpose

The Seventh Central Pay Commission (7 CPC) was constituted to review the principles that determine the structure of pay, allowances, and pensions for Central Government employees, including those in All India Services, Defence Forces, and Union Territories. The earlier six commissions had already shaped the evolution of India’s salary structure for government employees, and the seventh was expected to align compensation with the country’s economic realities and modern governance needs.

The Commission was tasked to ensure that the pay structure:

  • Reflects current economic conditions and fiscal prudence.
  • Ensures adequate resources for development and welfare expenditure.
  • Assesses the likely impact on State finances, as many states adopt similar pay revisions.
  • Studies global best practices and their relevance to Indian conditions.
  • Reviews retirement benefits and parity with Central Public Sector Undertakings (CPSUs).

Also Check: 8th Pay Commission

7th Pay Commission Composition

The Government of India appointed the following members to the Commission:

  • Justice Ashok Kumar Mathur – Chairman
  • Shri Vivek Rae – Member (IAS, former Secretary, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas)
  • Dr. Rathin Roy – Member (Economist, NIPFP)
  • Smt. Meena Agarwal – Secretary

This expert team ensured that perspectives from administration, economics, and finance were all represented in the final recommendations.

7th Central Pay Commission Objectives

The Seventh Pay Commission was asked to examine, review, and recommend changes in the principles governing emoluments of:

  • Central Government employees,
  • All India Services officers,
  • Defence Forces personnel,
  • Union Territories’ staff,
  • Officers of the Indian Audit and Accounts Department,
  • Members of Regulatory Bodies,
  • Officers and employees of the Supreme Court.

The Commission’s focus was on Pay, Allowances, and Pensions (PAP) the largest component of the government’s revenue expenditure. It also aimed to balance employee satisfaction with fiscal discipline, ensuring sustainability for the future.

Challenges Before the 7th Central Pay Commission

Designing a fair and sustainable pay structure is a complex task. The 7th CPC faced several challenges:

  • Balancing between a competitive salary to retain talent and the need for affordability within government finances.
  • Creating a structure that is simple yet rational, and forward-looking yet adaptable.
  • Addressing long-standing anomalies between civil and defence services pay and rank equivalence.
  • Tackling employee dissatisfaction due to limited promotion avenues, particularly after administrative downsizing.
  • Ensuring that the pay scales reflect skills, qualifications, and responsibilities fairly across various services.

The armed forces also expressed concerns that the Commission’s recommendations were discriminatory and inconsistent with historical parity vis-à-vis civil services and police organizations. This, they argued, could affect morale, command, and institutional harmony.

7th Central Pay Commission Economic and Fiscal Context

The 7th CPC worked under the broader framework of India’s Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act, which emphasized fiscal prudence and deficit control. The Commission recognized two major implications of its recommendations:

  1. Incremental Fiscal Space: A growing economy allows the government more room to accommodate pay revisions.
  2. Macroeconomic Constraints: Any sudden increase in Pay, Allowance, and Pension (PAP) expenses could impact fiscal stability.

The Commission also examined how earlier Pay Commissions had temporarily stressed public finances due to arrear payments. However, the 7th CPC minimized this risk by recommending only marginal arrears, ensuring minimal macroeconomic disruption.

7th Central Pay Commission Recommendations

The 7th Pay Commission introduced significant reforms in the pay structure, allowances, and pension framework.

1. Minimum and Maximum Pay

  • Minimum Pay: ₹18,000 per month, determined using the Aykroyd Formula, which calculates minimum wages based on the nutritional and living needs of workers.
  • Maximum Pay: ₹2,25,000 per month for Apex Scale officers, and ₹2,50,000 for the Cabinet Secretary and equivalent ranks.

2. Pay Matrix System

  • The traditional system of Pay Bands and Grade Pay (introduced by the 6th CPC) was replaced with a single Pay Matrix.
  • This matrix simplified salary progression, enhanced transparency, and made pay comparisons easier.
  • The level in the matrix now determines an employee’s rank and status, replacing grade pay distinctions.

3. Annual Increment

  • The annual increment rate was retained at 3% of the basic pay.
  • The increment ensures consistent career progression and rewards for experience.

4. Allowances and Pensions

  • The Commission rationalized over 196 allowances, merging, abolishing, or simplifying many.
  • House Rent Allowance (HRA) was revised based on city classification (X, Y, Z).
  • A uniform pension formula was introduced, ensuring parity between current and retired employees.

5. Implementation Timeline

  • The recommendations took effect from 1 January 2016, with most arrears paid by August 2016.

Implications of the 7th CPC Recommendations

The implementation of the 7th CPC had wide-ranging effects across the economy and governance structure:

  1. Fiscal Impact: Government spending on Pay, Allowances, and Pensions (PAP) increased significantly. While it boosted consumption demand, it also tightened fiscal space for infrastructure and welfare projects.
  2. Macroeconomic Stability: Unlike the previous Commissions (5th and 6th), which caused inflationary pressures due to arrear payouts, the 7th CPC’s structure avoided major macroeconomic shocks.
  3. Administrative Reforms: The new Pay Matrix simplified the pay determination process and enhanced transparency in promotions and career progression.
  4. Employee Motivation: The revised structure helped attract and retain skilled talent in government service, though some employee groups continued to demand further revisions for parity and fairness.
  5. Impact on States: Many State Governments subsequently adopted modified versions of the 7th CPC recommendations, impacting their fiscal health as well.

7th Central Pay Commission Criticisms

Despite the positive steps, the 7th CPC faced several criticisms:

  • Defence personnel highlighted discrepancies in rank equivalence and allowances compared to civil services.
  • Some employee unions argued that the minimum pay should have been higher to match inflation.
  • Pensioners demanded more uniformity in the One Rank One Pension (OROP) formula.
  • Critics also pointed out that the pay revisions increased the gap between the lowest and highest-paid employees, contradicting earlier commissions’ emphasis on income equality.

7th Central Pay Commission UPSC 

The 7th Pay Commission marked an important milestone in rationalizing and modernizing India’s government pay structure. By introducing the Pay Matrix, improving transparency, and aligning emoluments with fiscal realities, it ensured that government employment remains both attractive and financially sustainable.

While debates over parity and fairness continue, the 7th CPC set a foundation for performance-linked reforms and a more efficient compensation system in the public sector. Its balanced approach toward employee welfare and fiscal prudence reflects India’s evolving administrative needs in the 21st century.

7th Central Pay Commission FAQs

Q1: What is the salary of the 7th Pay Commission?

Ans: The 7th Pay Commission set the minimum pay at ₹18,000 per month and the maximum pay up to ₹2,50,000 per month for apex positions like the Cabinet Secretary.

Q2: Is the 8th Pay Commission implemented?

Ans: No, the 8th Pay Commission has not been implemented yet; the recommendations of the 7th Pay Commission are still in effect.

Q3: What is the 7th Central Pay Commission?

Ans: The 7th Central Pay Commission is a government-appointed body formed in 2014 to revise the pay, allowances, and pensions of Central Government employees, including defence personnel.

Q4: What is the objective of the 7th Central Pay Commission?

Ans: Its objective is to review and recommend changes in salaries, allowances, and pensions to ensure fairness, transparency, and fiscal prudence while maintaining administrative efficiency.

Q5: What is the Pay Matrix System?

Ans: The Pay Matrix System is a simplified pay structure that replaced pay bands and grade pay, determining salaries and rank based on levels in a single, unified matrix.

Public Sector Banks in India, List, Types, Structure, Functions

October 21, 2025
Public Sector Banks in India

Public Sector Banks (PSBs) in India are financial institutions where the majority stake (51% or more) is held by the Government of India. They form the backbone of the Indian banking sector, catering to millions of customers while playing a crucial role in financial inclusion, economic growth, and policy implementation. PSBs are pivotal in mobilizing savings, providing credit to key sectors such as agriculture and industry, and implementing government schemes like PMJDY and Mudra Yojana.

Public Sector Banks in India

PSBs operate under government ownership and regulatory supervision of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). As of 2025, India has 12 major PSBs, including State Bank of India (SBI), Bank of Baroda (BoB), Punjab National Bank (PNB), Canara Bank, and Union Bank of India. These banks provide a wide range of services including retail banking, corporate lending, trade finance, and digital banking. Their presence extends across urban and rural India, contributing to inclusive growth.

Public Sector Banks in India Historical Background

Public Sector Banks in India have evolved over more than a century, shaping the country’s banking landscape.

  • Pre-Independence Era (Before 1947): Banking was dominated by private and foreign banks with limited reach, primarily serving urban elites and trade sectors.
  • Nationalization of Banks (1969 & 1980): The Government of India nationalized 14 major banks in 1969 and 6 more in 1980 to ensure social and economic equity.
  • Formation of State Bank Group: The State Bank of India and its associates were consolidated to provide wider access to banking services.
  • Regional Rural Banks (1975): Established to extend banking services to rural areas, small farmers, and underbanked populations.
  • Post-Liberalization Reforms (1991 onwards): Focus shifted to improving efficiency, profitability, and technology adoption while retaining social obligations.
  • Merger and Consolidation (2017-2020): Several PSBs, including Bank of Baroda, Vijaya Bank, and Dena Bank, were merged to strengthen financial stability.

Public Sector Banks in India Classification

Public Sector Banks in India can be broadly classified into two categories based on ownership and operational structure:

1. Nationalized Banks

These banks were nationalized by the Government of India to align the banking sector with national priorities. Notable nationalized banks include:

  • State Bank of India (SBI): Established in 1955, SBI is the largest public sector bank in India, with over 22,000 branches nationwide and a market capitalization of approximately ₹6.67 lakh crore as of 2025. In 2017, the Government of India merged five associate banks with SBI, making it the largest banking conglomerate in the country.
  • Punjab National Bank (PNB): Founded in 1894, PNB has a significant presence with over 10,000 branches and a market capitalization of around ₹1.14 lakh crore.
  • Bank of Baroda: Established in 1908, BoB operates more than 8,000 branches and holds a market capitalization of approximately ₹1.13 lakh crore.

As of  today, there are 12 Nationalised Banks in India:

Nationalised Banks in India
S.No. Name of the Nationalised Bank Government Shareholding (%)

1

State Bank of India

57.51%

2

Canara Bank

62.93%

3

Bank of Baroda

63.97%

4

Punjab National Bank

70.08%

5

Bank of India

73.38%

6

Indian Bank

73.84%

7

Union Bank of India

74.76%

8

Bank of Maharashtra

86.46%

9

UCO Bank

90.95%

10

Central Bank of India

93.08%

11

Indian Overseas Bank

96.38%

12

Punjab & Sind Bank

98.25%

2. Regional Rural Banks (RRBs)

RRBs are jointly owned by the Government of India, sponsor PSBs, and state governments. They focus on providing credit and other facilities to the rural and agricultural sectors. As of 2025, there are 28 RRBs operating in India.

Public Sector Banks in India Structure

The organizational structure of Public Sector Banks in India is hierarchical and functionally integrated to ensure efficient operations and service delivery:

  • Board of Directors: Governs strategic decisions, policy formulation, and risk management. The Chairman & Managing Director (CMD) leads day-to-day operations.
  • Head Office: Oversees operations across the country, ensuring regulatory compliance and implementation of key policies.
  • Zonal/ Regional Offices: Supervise clusters of branches and coordinate with state-level authorities for effective service delivery.
  • Branches: Provide customer-facing services, including deposits, loans, and remittances, with a significant presence in both urban and rural areas.
  • Specialized Divisions: Include treasury, corporate banking, rural banking, digital banking, and recovery departments, catering to specific customer needs.

Public Sector Banks in India Functions

Public Sector Banks in India perform multiple roles vital to the country's economic development:

  • Financial Intermediation: Mobilizing deposits and providing credit to various sectors, including agriculture, industry, and services.
  • Government Schemes Implementation: Executing initiatives like Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), Mudra Yojana, and Atmanirbhar Bharat loans, aimed at financial inclusion and economic empowerment.
  • Trade Finance: Supporting import-export businesses through letters of credit, foreign exchange services, and trade facilitation.
  • Rural and Priority Sector Lending: Fulfilling 40% Priority Sector Lending (PSL) targets, as mandated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), with a focus on agriculture, micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs), and housing.
  • Digital Banking: Expanding mobile and internet banking services, enabling financial inclusion and convenience for customers.

Public Sector Banks in India Regulation

Public Sector Banks in India operate under a dual regulatory framework:

  • Reserve Bank of India (RBI): Regulates licensing, liquidity ratios, capital adequacy, and risk management, ensuring the stability and soundness of the banking system.
  • Ministry of Finance (Government of India): Oversees ownership, policy directions, recapitalization, and strategic decisions, aligning the banking sector with national economic goals.
  • Banking Regulation Act, 1949: Provides the legal framework for governance, auditing, and regulatory compliance, ensuring transparency and accountability in banking operations.

Public Sector Banks in India Significance

Public Sector Banks play a crucial role in India's banking ecosystem:

  • Nation-building Role: PSBs contribute to socio-economic development, financial literacy, and policy implementation.
  • Trust and Reliability: Government backing instills confidence in depositors and businesses, ensuring stability in the financial system.
  • Inclusive Growth: Serving rural and unbanked populations, PSBs ensure equitable access to finance, promoting social equity.
  • Economic Stability: PSBs act as stabilizers in economic crises by extending credit and liquidity support, mitigating systemic risks.

Public Sector Bank Merger in India

Public Sector Banks in India have undergone major mergers to strengthen financial stability, reduce redundancies, and improve efficiency. 10 PSBs were merged into 4, reducing the number from 27 to 12 between 2017 and 2020

    • Objective of Mergers: Mergers aim to create fewer but stronger banks with larger balance sheets, better capital adequacy, and wider reach.
    • 2017 Mergers: The consolidation started on April 1, 2017, when State Bank of India (SBI) with its five associate banks (State Bank of Bikaner & Jaipur, State Bank of Hyderabad, State Bank of Mysore, State Bank of Patiala, and State Bank of Travancore) and Bharatiya Mahila Bank were merged into SBI. 
    • 2019 Mergers: Dena Bank and Vijaya Bank were merged with the Bank of Baroda on April 1, 2019. 
    • 2020 Mergers: On August 30, 2019, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced a plan to merge 10 PSBs into four larger entities, with the mergers taking effect on April 1, 2020. The consolidations were as follows: 
      • Punjab National Bank absorbed Oriental Bank of Commerce and United Bank of India.
      • Canara Bank absorbed Syndicate Bank.
      • Union Bank of India absorbed Andhra Bank and Corporation Bank.
      • Indian Bank absorbed Allahabad Bank
  • Impact of Mergers:
      • Increased branch network and customer base.
      • Improved capital base and lending capacity.
      • Enhanced operational efficiency and cost reduction.
      • Strengthened ability to compete with private and foreign banks.
  • Challenges Post-Merger: Integration of IT systems, aligning HR policies, and maintaining customer service standards remain key hurdles.

Public Sector Banks in India Legal Framework

Public Sector Banks operate under a robust legal and policy framework:

  • Banking Regulation Act, 1949: Governs licensing, governance, and capital adequacy, ensuring the soundness of the banking system.
  • State Bank of India Act, 1955: Governs SBI's operations as India's largest PSB, providing a legal framework for its functioning.
  • Companies Act, 2013: Applicable for corporate governance, reporting, and audit compliance, ensuring transparency and accountability.
  • Government Policies:
      • Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY): Aimed at financial inclusion, providing banking access to all households.
      • Mudra Yojana: Supporting micro-enterprises with affordable credit.
      • Atmanirbhar Bharat Package: Providing recapitalization and lending boost to PSBs.
  • RBI Guidelines: Capital to risk-weighted assets ratio (CRAR), priority sector lending, and NPA classification, ensuring prudent banking practices.

Public Sector Banks in India Impacts

Public Sector Banks have had a significant impact on India's socio-economic development:

  1. Economic Impact
  • PSBs finance key sectors, including agriculture, MSMEs, and infrastructure, directly supporting India's GDP growth.
  • Provide affordable credit to rural households, small businesses, and emerging entrepreneurs, fostering inclusive economic development.
  1. Financial Inclusion
  • Through PMJDY, PSBs have opened over 45 crore accounts by 2025, providing banking access to marginalized communities.
  • Regional Rural Banks and cooperative branches complement their rural outreach, ensuring comprehensive financial inclusion.
  1. Technological Advancement
  • Integration of internet banking, mobile banking, and UPI services has modernized banking services across India.
  • Adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) for credit risk assessment and customer service automation.
  1. Employment Generation
  • PSBs employ over lakhs of people, creating direct and indirect job opportunities in urban and rural areas.
  • Initiatives like Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) have enhanced skill development and employability.

Public Sector Banks in India Challenges

Public Sector Banks in India face structural, operational, and financial challenges that require strategic reforms for sustainable growth.

Challenges:

  • Non-Performing Assets (NPAs): Gross NPAs of PSBs stood at 6.9% in FY2023, impacting profitability and capital adequacy.
  • Capital Adequacy Requirements: Banks require continuous capital infusion from the government to meet Basel III norms and maintain risk-weighted assets.
  • Operational Inefficiency: Legacy systems, overstaffing, and bureaucratic procedures hinder swift decision-making and digital adoption.
  • Technological Upgradation: Need for enhanced digital banking infrastructure, cybersecurity measures, and AI-powered customer services.
  • Competition: Increasing competition from private banks and fintech firms challenges PSBs’ market share.

Way Forward:

  • Consolidation and Mergers: Strategic mergers to create larger, financially sound entities capable of managing risk and improving efficiency.
  • Technology and Digital Transformation: Investment in core banking solutions, UPI, mobile banking, and AI-driven analytics to improve customer experience.
  • NPA Management and Recovery: Strengthen Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC) processes, implement stricter credit appraisal, and proactive recovery mechanisms.
  • Human Resource Reforms: Skill development, performance-linked incentives, and reducing bureaucratic delays to enhance productivity.
  • Financial Inclusion and Rural Outreach: Expanding services in rural and semi-urban areas through Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and branch modernization.
  • Sustainability Focus: Encourage green banking initiatives, digital transactions, and eco-friendly practices across branches.

Public Sector Banks in India UPSC

  1. Consolidation Trend: Several banks have merged to enhance financial strength, such as the merger of Bank of Baroda, Dena Bank, and Vijaya Bank.
  2. Digital Initiatives: UPI adoption, mobile banking apps, and digital lending platforms are rapidly expanding, with India handling approximately 85% of its digital transactions through UPI as of 2025.
  3. Government Recapitalization: The government infused ₹2.1 lakh crore in 2023-24 to strengthen PSB balance sheets, enhancing their lending capacity.
  4. Priority Sector Lending Enhancement: PSBs consistently achieving PSL targets above 40%, particularly to agriculture and MSME sectors, promoting inclusive growth.

Public Sector Banks in India FAQs

Q1: What are Public Sector Banks in India?

Ans: Public Sector Banks in India are government-majority-owned banks providing financial services, credit, and implementing national economic and social schemes.

Q2: How many Public Sector Banks in India exist currently?

Ans: As of 2025, there are 12 major Public Sector Banks in India operating nationwide with government majority ownership.

Q3: What functions do Public Sector Banks in India perform?

Ans: Public Sector Banks in India perform credit lending, financial inclusion, government schemes, trade finance, rural banking, and digital banking services.

Q4: Which major mergers involved Public Sector Banks in India?

Ans: Recent mergers of Public Sector Banks in India (2017 - 2020) include SBI with associates, BoB-Vijaya-Dena, PNB-OBC-United Bank, improving efficiency and financial strength.

Q5: Why are Public Sector Banks in India important for the economy?

Ans: Public Sector Banks in India ensure inclusive growth, economic stability, financial literacy, and credit availability to agriculture, MSMEs, and rural sectors.

Daily Editorial Analysis 21 October 2025

October 21, 2025
Daily Editorial Analysis

The New Arc of India-Australia Collaboration

Context

  • India’s growing engagement with Australia marks one of the most dynamic transformations in the Indo-Pacific’s defence landscape.
  • Defence Minister Rajnath Singh’s visit to Canberra and Sydney for the inaugural Australia–India Defence Ministers’ Dialogue represented a milestone in this trajectory, not merely symbolising shared rhetoric on regional security but demonstrating a concrete shift toward operational and industrial collaboration.
  • Amid these ongoing developments, it is important to examine the evolution, drivers, and implications of the deepening India–Australia defence relationship, highlighting how the partnership is transitioning from strategic alignment to a robust, capability-driven cooperation.

Evolving Stages of Partnership

  • Strategic Convergence

    • Strategic convergence formed the foundation of bilateral cooperation.
    • Both nations share concerns about China’s expanding influence and coercive behaviour in the Indo-Pacific, which threatens the rules-based maritime order.
    • These mutual anxieties have manifested in recurring engagements through the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) and a series of ministerial-level consultations, where both sides reiterated their commitment to a free and open Indo-Pacific.

  • Operational Deepening

    • Building upon this foundation, the relationship progressed to a phase of operational deepening.
    • Regular joint military exercises, such as Talisman Sabre, and increased information-sharing established habits of cooperation between the two militaries.
    • The signing of arrangements on air-to-air refuelling and logistics marked practical advances, enabling greater interoperability and flexibility in joint operations.

  • Industrial and Logistics Convergence

    • The most recent phase, industrial and logistics convergence, is arguably the most transformative.
    • Defence industry roundtables, discussions on joint ship maintenance, and cooperation on submarine rescue capabilities reveal a maturing partnership that extends beyond symbolic statements.
    • This phase aims to create a self-sustaining ecosystem of defence production, repair, and innovation that enhances both countries’ operational readiness.

Structural and Practical Drivers of Cooperation

  • Structurally, the shifting balance of maritime power, with China’s assertiveness challenging freedom of navigation and regional stability, has pushed middle powers to strengthen interlinkages.
  • For both New Delhi and Canberra, collaboration serves as a hedge against overreliance on any single external security provider.
  • On a practical level, cooperation mitigates operational friction during crises.
  • Shared logistics arrangements, submarine rescue mechanisms, and information-sharing frameworks enhance readiness and reduce vulnerabilities.

Complementary Strengths and Industrial Synergy

  • India and Australia’s partnership rests on a fusion of complementary strengths.
  • India’s vast maritime geography, industrial capacity, and cost-efficient defence production complement Australia’s technological sophistication and research prowess.
  • India’s Make in India and iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence) initiatives have propelled its domestic defence output to a record ₹1.5 lakh crore in FY 2024–25, signifying growing self-reliance and export potential.
  • Australia, on the other hand, brings cutting-edge maritime surveillance and undersea technologies, such as the P-8A Poseidon aircraft, MQ-4C Triton drones, and the autonomous Ghost Shark submarine project.
  • Together, these assets create a synergistic framework for co-developing technologies, sustaining maritime operations, and maintaining a stable Indo-Pacific order.

Political, Economic, and Institutional Foundations

  • Beyond operational considerations, political economy and institutionalization underpin the partnership’s durability.
  • Since being elevated to a Strategic Partnership in 2009 and further to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (CSP) in 2020, India–Australia relations have deepened across multiple dimensions, defence, trade, technology, and people-to-people exchanges.
  • For Canberra, India represents a democratic, economically rising partner that diversifies its Indo-Pacific security network.
  • For New Delhi, Australia is a key partner to expand its southern maritime reach and enhance situational awareness across the Indian Ocean.
  • Institutional mechanisms such as the annual Defence Ministers’ Dialogue and Joint Staff Talks ensure that cooperation is not contingent on political cycles.
  • These forums embed defence cooperation within bureaucratic and military structures, ensuring continuity, predictability, and policy momentum.

Conclusion

  • The India–Australia defence relationship exemplifies a shift from rhetorical partnership to strategic pragmatism.
  • Rooted in shared democratic values and mutual concerns over regional security, it has matured into a multidimensional collaboration spanning maritime operations, industrial innovation, and institutional resilience.
  • As both nations continue to align capabilities and interests, their cooperation will play an increasingly decisive role in shaping the Indo-Pacific’s security architecture, ensuring that it remains open, stable, and inclusive in the face of emerging geopolitical challenges.

The New Arc of India-Australia Collaboration FAQs

Q1. What was the main purpose of Defence Minister Rajnath Singh’s visit to Australia?
Ans. The main purpose of Rajnath Singh’s visit was to attend the inaugural Australia–India Defence Ministers’ Dialogue and strengthen operational and industrial defence cooperation between the two countries.

Q2. How has the India–Australia defence relationship evolved over time?
Ans. It has evolved through three phases — strategic convergence, operational cooperation, and industrial and logistics collaboration.

Q3. What structural factor has driven closer defence ties between India and Australia?
Ans. China’s increasing assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific has driven both countries to enhance defence cooperation to protect regional stability.

Q4. How do India and Australia’s defence strengths complement each other?
Ans. India contributes industrial scale and cost-effective production, while Australia provides advanced technology and research expertise, creating a balanced and synergistic partnership.

Q5. Why are institutional mechanisms like the Defence Ministers’ Dialogue important?
Ans. They ensure that defence cooperation continues consistently, beyond political changes, by embedding collaboration into formal structures.

 Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 21 October 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Dalit Movements in India, List, Leaders, Phases, Legal Safeguards

October 21, 2025
Dalit Movements in India

The Dalit movements in India represent one of the most powerful struggles for social justice, equality, and human dignity in modern Indian history. Emerging as a response to centuries of caste-based oppression, these movements aimed to dismantle untouchability, secure equal rights, and ensure access to education and public resources. From colonial-era reformist initiatives to post-independence political mobilization, the Dalit movement has continuously evolved, shaping India’s democratic and social discourse.

Dalit Movements in India

The Dalit movements in India have been both social and political in nature, aimed at transforming India’s deeply entrenched caste hierarchy. The word Dalit, meaning “oppressed” or “broken”, became widely recognized during the 20th century to describe communities previously labeled as “untouchables.” Their struggle for dignity has been marked by protests, legal reforms, and social mobilization across regions and decades.

The Dalit movement draws its intellectual and moral foundation from leaders such as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Jyotirao Phule, and Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, who advocated for annihilation of caste and equal citizenship. The movement has taken various forms: religious reform, socio-political assertion, and constitutional activism, culminating in a continuous quest for justice.

Dalit Movements in India Historical Background

The Dalit Movement in India has evolved through centuries of struggle against caste-based discrimination, untouchability, and social exclusion. Its roots trace back to the 19th century when social reformers began challenging Brahmanical dominance and advocating for equality and dignity of marginalized castes. Major Events:

  • 1827-Mahatma Jyotirao Phule’s Reform Initiatives: Jyotirao Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) in 1873, promoting education and social upliftment for the oppressed castes.
  • 1892- Adi Dharm Movement Begins in Punjab: Originating among the Chamars, it rejected the Brahmanical order and called for spiritual and cultural assertion of Dalits.
  • 1917- Non-Brahmin Movement in South India: Led by Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, this movement aimed to end caste hegemony and demanded reservation and self-respect for backward communities.
  • 1920s-1930s- Ambedkar’s Political Mobilization: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar led organizations like the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924) and Scheduled Castes Federation (1942) to secure political and social rights.
  • 1932- Poona Pact: Ambedkar and Gandhi signed the pact ensuring separate political representation through reserved seats for Dalits within the Hindu fold.
  • 1935: Government of India Act of 1935 provided separate electorates for depressed classes based on the ideals of Communal Award and Poona Pact, 1932.
  • 1956- Dalit Buddhist Movement: Ambedkar converted to Buddhism with over 5 lakh followers in Nagpur, symbolizing rejection of caste-based Hindu hierarchy.
  • 1972- Dalit Panthers Movement: Formed in Maharashtra, inspired by the Black Panthers of the U.S., this radical youth-led organization fought caste violence and oppression.
  • 1980s-1990s- Political Assertion: Rise of parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) under Kanshi Ram and Mayawati strengthened Dalit representation in governance.
  • 2000s-Present- New-Age Dalit Movements: Movements like Bhim Army and Dalit Human Rights Campaigns now combine social media activism, education, and legal reform to assert equality.

Dalit Movements in India Leaders

The major activists and leaders who ignited the Dalit Movements in India are:

Jyotirao Phule

  • Founded Satyashodhak Samaj (1873) to challenge caste dominance.
  • Advocated for women’s education and widow remarriage.
  • His work inspired later anti-caste thinkers and influenced Ambedkar’s ideology.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

  • Led the Dalit political mobilization and founded the Independent Labour Party (1936) and Scheduled Castes Federation (1942).
  • Architect of the Indian Constitution, ensuring fundamental rights and affirmative action for Dalits.
  • Initiated the mass conversion to Buddhism in 1956, rejecting caste hierarchy within Hinduism.

Periyar E.V. Ramasamy

  • Leader of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu, which fought Brahmanical patriarchy and caste discrimination.
  • Emphasized rationalism, social justice, and gender equality.

Babu Jagjivan Ram

  • Advocated for political representation of Dalits in post-independence India.
  • Served in multiple Union Cabinets and promoted constitutional safeguards for Scheduled Castes.

Mahatma Gandhi

  • Worked for Dalit rights, calling them Harijans. 
  • Fought untouchability, supported Dalit education, and promoted social equality. 
  • In 1932, he launched the Harijan Sevak Sangh to improve Dalit welfare, integrating them into India’s freedom movement.

Dalit Movements in India Phases

Scholars generally divide the Dalit movement into three major phases:

  1. Reformist Phase (Pre-1920): Focused on education and religious reform by figures like Phule and Narayana Guru.
  2. Pre-Independence/ Political Phase (1920-1950): Marked by Ambedkar’s leadership, the formation of independent Dalit political parties, and advocacy for constitutional rights.
  3. Post-Independence Phase (1950-2010): Characterized by socio-political assertion through movements like the Dalit Panthers and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), focusing on power and representation.
  4. Dalit Movements in Contemporary India (2010-Present): This phase is marked by digital, political and social development of activism in the contemporary modern era.

Dalit Movements in India Reformist Phase

The Reformist Phase of Dalit Movements in the 19th century marked the beginning of organized efforts against caste-based discrimination and social inequality.

  • Jyotirao Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873, opposing Brahmanical dominance and promoting education among lower castes and women.
  • He viewed caste hierarchy as an exploitative tool linked to Hindu society’s social and economic structures.
  • Sri Narayana Guru in Tamil Nadu and Kerala preached “One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man,” rejecting ritual purity and caste barriers.
  • His ideas inspired the Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25), one of India’s first organized temple entry movements.
  • The colonial government, through the Hunter Commission (1882) and Government of India Act (1919), encouraged education and political participation among lower castes.
  • These reformist initiatives were largely social and religious but laid the foundation for political mobilization later led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Pre-Independence Dalit Movements in India

Before India’s independence, Dalit movements emerged across regions, driven by local leadership and social conditions to challenge caste-based discrimination and inequality.

  • Depressed Classes Conference (1917) and All India Depressed Classes Association (1920): United Dalit voices at the national level.
  • Ambedkar-Gandhi Conflict (1932): The Poona Pact replaced separate electorates with reserved seats, ensuring representation but limiting Dalit autonomy.
  • Adi Dravida and Adi Andhra Movements (Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh): Promoted education and employment for social mobility and identity assertion.
  • Ad-Dharm Movement (Punjab, 1926): Led by Mangoo Ram Mugowalia, emphasized a distinct Dalit religious identity.
  • Justice Party (Madras Presidency): Advocated non-Brahmin representation and caste-based reservations in government jobs.

Post-Independence Dalit Movements in India

After India’s independence, Dalit activism shifted from social reform to political mobilization and identity assertion. Despite constitutional guarantees, caste violence, discrimination, and socio-economic marginalization persisted, prompting new organizations, ideologies, and forms of protest.

  • 1950s-1960s: Inspired by B.R. Ambedkar, groups like the Republican Party of India (RPI) were formed to consolidate Dalit political power, though internal divisions weakened their impact.
  • 1960s-1970s: Radical movements, notably the Dalit Panthers (1972) in Maharashtra, emerged. Influenced by the Black Power Movement in the US, they demanded cultural and political revolution, focusing on land rights, caste atrocities, and education.
  • Dalit Literature: Writers like Namdeo Dhasal, Omprakash Valmiki, and Bama used literature as resistance, exposing the harsh realities of caste oppression.
  • 1980-1990s: The Mandal Commission Report (1980) and its implementation in 1990 broadened the social justice debate. While targeting Other Backward Classes (OBCs), it reignited discussions on caste inequality and reservation policies.
  • North India Politics: In Uttar Pradesh, the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) led by Kanshi Ram and Mayawati reshaped Dalit politics. Their “Bahujan” ideology united Dalits, OBCs, and minorities, creating a powerful political force. Mayawati’s tenure as Chief Minister symbolized Dalit empowerment in governance.

Dalit Movements in Contemporary India

In post-liberalization India, Dalit movements entered a new phase characterized by political assertion, digital activism, and global solidarity. Dalit-led parties, civil society organizations, and social media advocacy transformed how caste issues are debated and addressed.

  • 21st Century Politics: Dalit identity became central to electoral politics and public discourse. Movements like the Una Dalit Uprising (2016) in Gujarat, protesting cow vigilante violence, and the Bhima Koregaon movement (2018) in Maharashtra highlighted renewed activism against caste atrocities. These events exposed the gap between constitutional ideals and ground realities.
  • Youth Engagement: Dalit youth increasingly participate in education, urban activism, and legal rights awareness. Social Platforms amplify voices often ignored by mainstream media. Activists like Jignesh Mevani and organizations such as the Ambedkar Students’ Association (ASA) exemplify this assertive generation.
  • Caste Atrocities and Legal Awareness: According to NCRB (2022), over 50,000 cases are registered annually under the SC/ ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, showing both increased reporting and continued discrimination. Despite affirmative action, Dalits remain underrepresented in higher bureaucracy and face high dropout rates in education.
  • Multifaceted Movements: Contemporary Dalit activism combines legal awareness, grassroots mobilization, and cultural assertion, reflecting an evolved approach to social justice and equality.

Dalit Movements in India List

Major Dalit Movements in India include Adi-dharma movement, Dalit Buddhist Movement, etc as led by the significant Dalit Activists:

The Adi-Dharma Movement (Punjab, 1892)

The Adi Dharm Movement began in Punjab in 1892 among the Chamar community, emphasizing self-respect and rejection of caste-based inferiority. It emerged under the leadership of Mangoo Ram Mugowalia, drawing from Arya Samaj and reformist ideologies. According to colonial census records, Ad-Dharm followers reached nearly 4 lakh by 1931. It established schools and promoted Dalit identity as “original people” of India, asserting equality in religion and society.

The Temple Entry Movements

Movements like the Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25) and Guruvayur Temple Movement in Kerala fought for Dalit access to temples and public spaces, symbolizing social equality.

The Mahad Satyagraha (1927)

Led by Ambedkar, this movement demanded Dalits’ right to access public water tanks in Mahad, Maharashtra. It became a symbol of equality and civil rights.

Non-Brahmin Movement (1917)

The Non-Brahmin Movement began in Madras Presidency led by Periyar E.V. Ramasamy and earlier by leaders like Dr. T.M. Nair and C. Natesa Mudaliar. It challenged Brahmanical monopoly over education and jobs, leading to the formation of the Justice Party (1916). The movement influenced future reservation policies under the Communal G.O. of 1921, ensuring fair representation for backward and Dalit communities in South India’s governance.

Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932)

The Harijan Sevak Sangh was founded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 to eliminate untouchability and uplift Dalits socially and economically. The organization focused on promoting education, healthcare, and social equality among marginalized communities. It ran schools, hostels, and vocational training centers for Dalits, empowering them to participate in mainstream society. Over decades, it has played a key role in fostering social justice, inclusion, and awareness against caste discrimination in India.

Dalit Buddhist Movement (1956)

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar launched the Dalit Buddhist Movement on October 14, 1956, at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur, where lakhs of Dalits converted to Buddhism. This was a spiritual and political act against caste oppression within Hinduism. The movement revitalized Buddhist philosophy in India and led to formation of organizations like the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha. Census data later reflected rising Buddhist populations in Maharashtra, symbolizing Dalit self-liberation.

Dalit Panthers Movement (1972)

Formed in Maharashtra in 1972 by Namdeo Dhasal and J.V. Pawar, the Dalit Panthers was inspired by the American Black Panther Party. It aimed to counter growing atrocities against Dalits, particularly in rural Maharashtra. The Panthers published a manifesto in 1973 calling for annihilation of caste and redistribution of wealth. Their activism influenced later Dalit literature, art, and political identity in post-Ambedkarite India.

Bahujan Samaj Movement (1980s-1990s)

The Bahujan Samaj Movement, founded by Kanshi Ram in 1984, led to the creation of the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP). Its philosophy was based on Ambedkar’s “Bahujan Hitay, Bahujan Sukhay”- welfare for the majority. Under Mayawati’s leadership, the BSP formed governments in Uttar Pradesh multiple times. The movement redefined Dalit politics, emphasizing representation, education, and empowerment through electoral strength.

Bhim Army and Contemporary Dalit Activism (2015-Present)

Founded by Chandrashekhar Azad ‘Ravan’ in 2015 in Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, the Bhim Army represents modern Dalit assertion. Using social media, it promotes education, self-defense, and constitutional rights. According to NHRC (2023) data, crimes against Scheduled Castes increased by over 13% between 2019 and 2022, making Bhim Army’s grassroots activism vital for contemporary Dalit rights. It reflects the digital transformation of Ambedkarite mobilization.

Issues Addressed by Dalit Movements in India

Majors issues that were addressed by the activists and reformers that led to the revolutionary Dalit Movements in India were:

  • Untouchability and social exclusion in public places, education, and employment.
  • Denial of property rights and land ownership, leading to economic marginalization.
  • Discrimination in temples, schools, and workplaces, reinforcing social hierarchy.
  • Caste-based violence, including atrocities recorded under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
  • Unequal access to education and resources, especially in rural India.

Dalit Movements in India Impact

Dalit movements have profoundly reshaped India’s social and political fabric.

  1. Constitutional Democracy: These movements embedded social justice as a core constitutional value, influencing the Preamble and Directive Principles.
  2. Political Empowerment: The rise of Dalit-led parties like BSP and leaders like Mayawati demonstrated that historically marginalized groups could hold power democratically.
  3. Social Awareness: Campaigns for temple entry, land rights, and education dismantled social taboos and expanded the idea of equality.
  4. Educational Progress: SC literacy rose from very low levels in the 1960s to around 66% by 2011 (Census), reflecting long-term gains of reform.
  5. Legal Development: Progressive laws like the Prevention of Atrocities Act (1989) and constitutional amendments arose from decades of Dalit activism.
  6. Cultural Assertion: Dalit literature, cinema, and art created new spaces for self-expression and historical reinterpretation.
  7. Global Solidarity: The Dalit cause gained international recognition, with global forums like the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) addressing caste discrimination as a human rights issue.

Legal Safeguards for Dalits in India

These safeguards encompass fundamental rights, directive principles, special laws, and affirmative action policies. The Government has enacted a series of special laws and schemes to prevent caste-based atrocities, promote social justice, ensure accountability for discrimination and to support the upliftment of the class.

Constitutional Provisions:

  • Article 14- Guarantees equality before law and equal protection to all citizens.
  • Article 15(4)- Permits special provisions for advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, including Scheduled Castes.
  • Article 16(4)- Enables reservation in public employment for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
  • Article 17- Abolishes untouchability and forbids its practice in any form; violation is a punishable offence under law.
  • Article 46- Directs the State to promote educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes and protect them from exploitation.
  • Article 330-334- Provide for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.
  • Article 338- Establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) to investigate and monitor safeguards for Dalits.

Legal Frameworks for Protection of Dalits:

  1. Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955
  • Enacted to operationalize Article 17 (abolition of untouchability).
  • Punishes denial of access to public spaces, services, or institutions based on caste.
  • Administered by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
  1. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
  • Known as the PoA Act, this law prevents atrocities against SCs and STs.
  • Provides for special courts, witness protection, and rehabilitation schemes for victims.
  • In 2018, following protests, Parliament restored key provisions that had been diluted by a Supreme Court ruling (Subhash Kashinath Mahajan vs. State of Maharashtra, 2018).
  • According to NCRB 2022 data, over 57,000 cases were registered under this Act.
  1. Employment and Education Reservation Laws
  • Central and State Services (SC Reservation) Orders mandate 15% reservation for Scheduled Castes in public employment.
  • Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006 reserves 15% of seats for SC students.
  1. SC/ ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Amendment Rules, 2016
  • Expanded the list of offences to 47 and introduced exclusive Special Courts for faster trial of caste-based crimes.
  1. Legal Aid and Representation
  • National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) and SC/ ST Protection Cells ensure free legal aid and speedy justice to Dalit victims of violence.

Government Policies and Initiatives for Dalit Empowerment:

  • Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan (SCSP) (1979): Ensures earmarking of budgetary resources in proportion to the SC population in all ministries and states.
  • National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC) (1989): Provides concessional loans and training programs for entrepreneurship among SC youth.
  • Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY) (2009): Develops villages with over 50% SC population into model villages with better infrastructure and social amenities.
  • Stand-Up India Scheme (2016): Encourages entrepreneurship by providing bank loans between ₹10 lakh-₹1 crore to SC/ ST and women entrepreneurs.
  • Ambedkar Social Innovation and Incubation Mission (ASIIM) (2020): Promotes innovation and start-ups among SC students in higher education institutions.
  • National Action Plan for SCs (2022): Consolidates education, skill development, and entrepreneurship programs under a single monitoring framework by the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment.

Landmark Case Laws

  • State of Karnataka v. Appa Balu Ingale (1993): Recognized that untouchability is a grave social evil and a continuing constitutional violation of Article 17.
  • Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992): Upheld reservation policy and clarified the “creamy layer” concept, reinforcing equity principles.
  • State of Uttar Pradesh v. Rajesh Gautam (2020): Reaffirmed the need for strict enforcement of the PoA Act.

International Coordination and Global Commitments:

  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): Guarantees equality and dignity irrespective of birth or social status.
  • UN Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD, 1965): Though caste is not explicitly mentioned, India reports to CERD regarding its anti-discrimination laws.
  • UN Special Rapporteur Reports (2011, 2016): Highlighted continued caste-based discrimination and recommended stronger enforcement of the PoA Act and equitable education access.
  • ILO Conventions on Equal Remuneration and Discrimination: India ratified key conventions promoting fair labor rights for marginalized communities, including Dalits engaged in manual or informal work.
  • Sustainable Development Goals (SDG-5 and SDG-10): India’s Dalit welfare policies directly support SDG targets on reducing inequality and ensuring gender justice among marginalized groups.

Misuse of Dalit Movements in India

While protective laws are essential, concerns have been raised about occasional misuse or overreach of these provisions. However, experts emphasize that the extent of misuse is minimal compared to the vast underreporting of genuine atrocities, and the need remains to strengthen justice delivery mechanisms rather than dilute protections.

  • The Supreme Court (2018) in Subhash Kashinath Mahajan vs. State of Maharashtra noted instances where false complaints were filed under the PoA Act for personal or political motives.
  • The judgment introduced preliminary inquiry before arrest, later nullified by Parliament through the 2018 Amendment to restore deterrence.
  • NCRB data (2022) shows a conviction rate of 32.4% under the PoA Act, indicating challenges in proving genuine cases due to poor investigation, fear among witnesses, and misuse concerns.
  • Political misuse: In some cases, provisions are invoked during local or electoral conflicts.
  • Administrative delays: Weak implementation of SCSP funds and low conviction rates hinder justice delivery.
  • Social stigma: Many genuine victims hesitate to file complaints due to social backlash.

Dalit Movements in India Ideologies

The ideological foundation of Dalit movements draws from multiple schools of thought- social reform, Marxism, Ambedkarite philosophy, and identity politics.

  1. Ambedkarism: Central to Dalit ideology, Ambedkarism promotes education, rationalism, and constitutionalism. It emphasizes annihilating caste through social and moral reform rather than mere economic progress.
  2. Phule-Ambedkar Legacy: Jyotirao Phule’s anti-Brahmanical ideology inspired Ambedkar’s political philosophy, linking caste with material exploitation.
  3. Periyar’s Rationalism: In the South, E.V. Ramasamy Periyar’s Self-Respect Movement (1925) encouraged Dalits to reject Hindu orthodoxy and patriarchy.
  4. Marxist Influence: In states like Kerala and West Bengal, Marxist frameworks connected caste oppression with class struggle, though with limited success in addressing caste-specific discrimination.
  5. Dalit Feminism: Emerging in the 1990s, Dalit feminism addressed the intersectionality of caste, class, and gender oppression. Thinkers like Ruth Manorama and Gail Omvedt expanded the discourse beyond patriarchy, arguing that Dalit women face “triple discrimination.”

Dalit Movements in India Challenges 

Despite legal protections, Dalit empowerment remains incomplete due to deep-seated socio-economic barriers and institutional weaknesses.

Key Challenges:

  1. Caste-Based Violence: Reports show rise in atrocities against SCs, highlighting persistent social hostility.
  2. Economic Inequality: 71% of Dalits are landless laborers and that 58.4% of rural Dalit households own no land (Census 2011).
  3. Educational Gaps: Dropout rates among SC students remain high at secondary level (Unified District Information System for Education).
  4. Underrepresentation: Dalits hold less than 10% of top administrative posts despite reservation policies.
  5. Cultural Marginalization: Dalit voices often remain excluded from mainstream media and academia.

Way Forward:

  • Effective Implementation: Strengthen monitoring of SC/ ST Sub-Plans and ensure accountability in fund utilization.
  • Educational Reforms: Enhance quality of education and ensure residential facilities for Dalit students.
  • Economic Empowerment: Expand land reforms and entrepreneurship opportunities through targeted credit schemes.
  • Legal Protection: Ensure faster investigation and trial under the PoA Act to curb atrocities.
  • Social Reconciliation: Promote inter-caste harmony through community engagement, media sensitization, and inclusive curriculum.
  • Digital Inclusion: Use technology to create awareness of rights and legal recourse mechanisms.

Dalit Movements in India UPSC

  • The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment launched “Ambedkar Social Innovation and Incubation Mission” on September 30 2020, operating under the Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled Castes (VCF-SC), established in 2015 with an initial fund of ₹500 crore. The ASIIM initiative provides equity funding of up to ₹30 lakh per startup
  • Supreme Court (2023) directed all states to ensure the functional efficiency of Special Courts for Atrocity Cases.
  • Majority of Scheduled Caste households are engaged in casual labor, indicating persistent poverty.
  • 2011 Census reported the overall SC literacy rate at 66% but still lag behind the national average.
  • According to NCRB 2023, over 57,000 cases of crimes against Scheduled Castes were reported, showing a 0.4% rise over the previous year.
  • Dalit women remain the most vulnerable, facing intersectional discrimination in both caste and gender domains.
  • The Union Budget for 2023-24 announced a total allocation of ₹1,59,126.22 crore for the welfare of Scheduled Castes.

Dalit Movements in India FAQs

Q1: What Are Dalit Movements In India?

Ans: Dalit Movements In India are social justice struggles aiming to end caste discrimination and ensure equality, dignity, and constitutional rights.

Q2: Who Led The Dalit Movements In India?

Ans: Dalit Movements In India were led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Jyotirao Phule, and Periyar E.V. Ramasamy promoting equality and education.

Q3: What Was The Purpose Of Dalit Movements In India?

Ans: Dalit Movements In India aimed to abolish untouchability, secure political representation, and achieve social, educational, and economic empowerment.

Q4: What Are Major Dalit Movements In India?

Ans: Major Dalit Movements In India include Satyashodhak Samaj, Dalit Panthers, Dalit Buddhist Movement, Adi-Dharm Movement, and Bahujan Samaj Movement.

Q5: What Is The Impact Of Dalit Movements In India?

Ans: Dalit Movements In India transformed social equality, increased literacy, political participation, and strengthened laws protecting Scheduled Castes’ rights.

Poverty Measurement in India – Revisiting the Rangarajan Line and the Shift to Multidimensional Poverty

October 21, 2025
Poverty Measurement in India

Poverty Measurement in India Latest News

  • Fifteen years after the C. Rangarajan Committee redefined India’s poverty line, a recent study by economists from the RBI’s Department of Economic and Policy Research (DEPR) has updated the poverty estimates for 20 major states.
  • Done using the 2022–23 Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES), the findings reveal substantial inter-state variation and highlight the transformation in India’s poverty landscape.

Background - Revisiting the Rangarajan Committee’s Methodology

  • The Rangarajan Committee (2014) was set up by the erstwhile Planning Commission to review poverty measurement.
  • It estimated the national poverty line at ₹972/month for rural areas (approx. ₹32/day), and ₹1,407/month for urban areas (~₹47/day).
  • This placed 29.5% of India’s population below the poverty line in 2011–12. Since then, no government-endorsed poverty line has been established.

Key Findings - RBI Economists Update (2022-23)

  • Major State-level trends: Odisha and Bihar emerged as big movers, showing the largest poverty reduction.
  • Odisha: Rural poverty (2011–12) - 47.8%; rural poverty (2022–23) - 8.6%
  • Bihar: Urban poverty (2011–12) - 50.8%; urban poverty (2022–23) - 9.1%
  • Kerala: Rural poverty (2011–12) - 7.3%; rural poverty (2022–23) - 1.4%
  • Himachal Pradesh: Urban poverty (2011–12) - 8.8%; urban poverty (2022–23) - 2.0%
  • Lowest rural poverty (2022–23): Himachal Pradesh (0.4%)
  • Lowest urban poverty (2022–23): Tamil Nadu (1.9%)
  • Highest rural and urban poverty (2022–23): Chhattisgarh (25.1% & 13.3%)

Methodological Approach

  • The study did not use consumer price index (CPI) inflation to adjust the 2011–12 lines, as the consumption baskets differ - 
    • Food weight: 57% in rural PLB vs. 54% in rural CPI
    • Food weight: 47% in urban PLB vs. 36% in urban CPI
  • Instead, a new price index was constructed matching the Rangarajan Poverty Line Basket (PLB) weights to better reflect price changes.
  • This updated index was applied to derive state-specific poverty lines for 2022–23.

The Broader Debate - Measuring Poverty in India

  • Divergent estimates:
    • SBI research (using 2023–24 HCES data): Rural poverty - 4.86%; urban poverty - 4.09%
    • World Bank (2022): Poverty in India stood at 10.2% (2019).
    • IMF (2022): Asserted that the poverty rate in India was a much lower 0.8% in 2019, aided by the government’s food transfers.
    • These variations highlight the sensitivity of poverty estimates to methodology, data source, and welfare accounting.
  • The shift to multidimensional poverty:
    • Based on the global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), the Indian MPI looks at poverty through three lenses—health, education, and standard of living.
    • These are represented by 12 indicators including nutrition, mortality, schooling, sanitation, electricity, assets, and bank accounts.
    • This shows that poverty lines are seemingly a thing of the past, and poverty estimations now goes beyond just money and consumption. 
    • NITI Aayog (2024) estimates: 24.82 crore people exited multidimensional poverty between 2013–14 and 2022–23, and MPI reduced from 29.17% to 11.28%.
    • World Bank (2022) estimates: India’s poverty headcount ratio at 23.9% (using the $4.2/day line for lower-middle-income countries).
  • Analysis - Changing dynamics of poverty measurement:
    • The Rangarajan line provided a monetary lens, focused on minimum consumption expenditure.
    • The current MPI approach integrates human development factors, aligning with the SDGs (Goal 1: No Poverty).
    • The RBI study underscores that poverty reduction is not uniform across states, reflecting disparities in growth, welfare delivery, and employment generation.
    • Methodological issues—such as updating PLBs, data gaps, and regional cost differentials—remain central to India’s poverty discourse.

Way Forward

  • Periodic revision of poverty lines: Update the poverty line basket (PLB) to reflect changing consumption patterns and price structures.
  • Integration of monetary and multidimensional measures: Combine income or consumption metrics with MPI indicators for a holistic poverty assessment.
  • Data transparency and timely surveys: Ensure regular HCES releases to enable evidence-based policymaking.
  • Targeted State-level interventions: Focused policies for lagging states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh.
  • Leverage digital welfare platforms: Use Aadhaar-linked DBTs and social registry databases for efficient delivery of benefits.

Conclusion

  • The RBI’s updated poverty estimates mark an important revival of the monetary poverty debate in India. 
  • While the Rangarajan line remains a statistical benchmark, the policy focus has decisively shifted toward multidimensional poverty—capturing human capabilities and access to basic services. 
  • The remarkable decline in poverty, especially in states like Odisha and Bihar, highlights the impact of growth and welfare synergy. 
  • But persistent disparities call for region-specific and evidence-based policy frameworks to ensure inclusive and sustainable development.

Source: IE

Poverty Measurement in India FAQs

Q1: What was the key contribution of the C. Rangarajan Committee (2014) to India’s poverty estimation methodology?

Ans: It redefined the poverty line based on a new consumption basket, estimating poverty at 29.5%.

Q2: Which states have shown the sharpest decline in poverty as per the RBI economists’ updated Rangarajan line (2022–23)?

Ans: Odisha and Bihar recorded the most significant decline—rural poverty in Odisha, and urban poverty in Bihar dropped significantly.

Q3: Why did the RBI study avoid using CPI inflation to update the 2011–12 poverty lines?

Ans: Because the consumption weights of the Rangarajan Poverty Line Basket (PLB) differ from the CPI basket.

Q4: How does India’s Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) differ from traditional monetary poverty lines?

Ans: MPI measures deprivation across health, education, and living standards using 12 indicators, going beyond mere income or consumption levels.

Q5: What policy implications emerge from India’s recent poverty estimates and trends?

Ans: They highlight the need for regular data updates, integration of monetary and multidimensional measures, etc.

Delay in Carbon-Free Shipping Plan Due to Global Divide

October 21, 2025
Carbon-Free Shipping

Carbon-Free Shipping Latest News

  • The International Maritime Organisation has voted to delay the implementation of its global carbon-free shipping plan by one year following opposition led by the United States.

The Global Shipping Industry and Its Carbon Footprint

  • International shipping is the backbone of global trade, carrying around 90% of the world’s goods by volume. 
  • However, it is also a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, accounting for nearly 2-3% of total global CO₂ emissions, equivalent to those of major industrialised nations.
  • Unlike land-based industries, shipping operates largely in international waters, making global regulation of its emissions complex. 
  • To address this, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), a specialised UN agency, has been leading efforts to reduce the sector’s carbon footprint through collective commitments and standards applicable to all member countries.
  • In 2023, the IMO adopted its revised Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Strategy, setting ambitious goals for international shipping to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. 
  • The strategy also included a minimum 40% reduction in carbon intensity by 2030 (compared to 2008 levels) and encouraged the large-scale adoption of zero or near-zero emission fuels by 2030.
  • However, the latest developments suggest that the path toward decarbonising shipping has encountered a major political setback.

News Summary

  • At a recent meeting in London, the IMO member states voted to delay the implementation of the global carbon-free shipping framework by one year. 
  • This postponement came after intense diplomatic pressure from the United States, which opposed the introduction of a global carbon tax on shipping emissions.
  • The proposed framework, approved by an IMO sub-committee in April 2025, included two major components:
    • A new global fuel standard to limit the carbon intensity of ship fuels.
    • A carbon pricing mechanism to make fossil-fuel-based shipping less competitive and incentivise cleaner technologies.
  • Originally, the proposal was to be voted on and implemented from 2027, with 63 countries (including the EU, China, India, Japan, Brazil, and Canada) initially supporting it and 16 countries, led by the United States, voting against it.
  • In the days preceding the vote, U.S. President Donald Trump publicly denounced the plan on social media, calling it a “Global Green New Scam Tax on Shipping”. 
    • He warned that the U.S. would not adhere to any such global carbon tax that could increase costs for American consumers.
  • Amid growing tensions, Singapore proposed delaying the decision by one year, which was seconded by Saudi Arabia. In the final vote, 57 countries supported the delay, 49 opposed it, and 21 abstained. It remains unclear which way India voted.
  • Climate-vulnerable nations such as Vanuatu expressed deep disappointment, calling the delay “a failure of a United Nations agency to act decisively on climate change.”

Implications of the Delay

  • Impact on Climate Goals
    • The IMO’s 2023 GHG strategy aimed to ensure that at least 5% of the total energy used in international shipping by 2030 would come from zero or near-zero emission sources. 
    • The delay could push back investments in renewable fuels and technologies, threatening progress toward this interim goal.
  • Economic and Political Divide
    • The U.S. stance exposes the widening North-South divide in global climate negotiations. 
    • Developing countries argue for equitable transition financing and technology transfer, while industrialised nations are reluctant to accept global taxation frameworks. The U.S. opposition also highlights domestic political resistance to global climate taxes.
  • India’s Role
    • India, which had initially supported the framework, faces a delicate balance between economic interests and environmental commitments. 
    • As a growing maritime nation, India is both a key shipping hub and a developing economy, advocating for “common but differentiated responsibilities”, the principle that developing nations should not bear disproportionate climate burdens.
  • Environmental Consequences
    • Currently, ships above 5,000 gross tonnes, which make up 85% of total shipping emissions, remain largely dependent on heavy fuel oil. 
    • Without stronger policy interventions, the share of global shipping emissions (1.7-2.3%) is projected to rise as global trade expands.

Way Ahead

  • Experts believe the delay offers both a challenge and an opportunity. On one hand, it risks slowing international coordination on emission cuts. 
  • On the other hand, it gives countries additional time to develop alternative proposals that may ensure broader political consensus and financial feasibility.
  • The IMO is expected to revisit the proposal in October 2026, with calls growing for an equitable carbon levy system that supports small island states and developing economies. 
  • Parallel initiatives, such as the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS) and private-sector green shipping corridors, may continue advancing decarbonisation independently of the IMO’s delay.
  • The global shipping industry, which has traditionally lagged behind aviation and energy sectors in decarbonisation, now faces a crucial test: whether political will can match technological potential in combating climate change.

Source: TH

India’s Elephant Population 2025: What the New WII Report Reveals

October 21, 2025
Elephant Population

Elephant Population Latest News

  • The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) released its ‘Status of Elephants in India’ report, estimating 22,446 elephants across four major landscapes. 
  • This figure appears lower than the 2017 estimate of 29,964, but the WII clarified that the new DNA-based estimation method, used for the first time, establishes a fresh scientific baseline for future population monitoring rather than serving as a direct comparison with earlier counts.

Why India Switched to a New DNA-Based Method for Counting Elephants

  • India’s elephant population estimates have evolved significantly since the first count in 1929 in the United Province (now Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand). 
  • Early surveys, up to 1978, relied on direct visual counts, averaging sightings recorded at 10-day intervals.
  • With the launch of Project Elephant in 1992, population estimation became a five-year exercise using varied techniques such as total count, waterhole count, dung count, and transect sampling. 
  • However, since different states used different methods, comparisons across regions and years were inconsistent.
  • To address this, the Synchronised Elephant Census in 2005, 2010, and 2017 introduced uniform counting methods — including total (direct) counts and line transect dung (indirect) counts. Yet, limitations like observer bias and overcounting persisted.
  • Recognising these challenges, India adopted the Synchronous All-India Elephant Estimation (SAIEE) for 2021–25, which employs a DNA-based approach.
  • This approach provides a more accurate, scientific, and comparable baseline for future elephant population monitoring.

SAIEE 2021–25: A Scientific Overhaul of India’s Elephant Census

  • The Synchronous All-India Elephant Estimation (SAIEE) 2021–25 marks a major methodological shift in tracking Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), which now occupy only a fraction of their historical range.
  • The 2017 census had estimated 29,964 elephants, but the SAIEE recorded 22,446 — a drop of 7,518. 
  • However, experts from the WII and State Forest Departments cautioned against direct comparison.
    • SAIEE introduced a new scientific framework, excluded areas like the Andaman Islands (due to budget limits), and aimed to establish a fresh baseline for future monitoring.
  • Under SAIEE, India was divided into 100 sq. km cells, further split into 4 sq. km grids, each uniquely coded to enable consistent spatial comparisons. 
  • Enumerators walked 6,66,977 km, surveying 1,88,030 trails and transects, and collected 21,056 dung samples.
  • The process unfolded in three phases:
    • Phase I: Collected field data on animal signs, dung counts, vegetation, and human disturbances.
    • Phase II: Assessed habitat quality and human impacts, including forest cover and patch size.
    • Phase III: Used the data for spatially explicit abundance estimation, factoring in both habitat and human influence.
  • The SAIEE thus represents India’s most comprehensive and scientifically rigorous elephant census, creating a uniform national baseline for long-term conservation efforts.

Western Ghats Lead as India’s Strongest Elephant Habitat

  • The ‘Status of Elephants in India’ study covered four major elephant-bearing landscapes, revealing that over half of India’s elephants live in the Western Ghats region.
  • Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu)
    • Home to 11,934 elephants (53.17%), this landscape supports the largest population.
    • Karnataka: 6,013 elephants
    • Tamil Nadu: 3,136 elephants
    • Kerala: 2,785 elephants
  • North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plains (7 NE States + North Bengal)
    • Account for 22.22% of India’s elephants, led by Assam with 4,159 elephants, making it the second-largest habitat zone.
  • Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains (Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar)
    • Hold 9.18% of the national total, with Uttarakhand leading at 1,792 elephants.
  • Central India and Eastern Ghats (AP, Maharashtra, Telangana, Odisha, S. West Bengal, etc.)
    • Contain 8.42% of India’s elephants, with Odisha hosting 912 elephants.
  • Overall, the findings underscore the Western Ghats’ pivotal role in elephant conservation, while highlighting the significant but smaller populations spread across India’s northeastern, northern, and central landscapes.

Fragmented Habitats and Rising Conflicts Threaten India’s Elephants

  • The study highlights severe fragmentation of elephant habitats caused by commercial plantations (coffee, tea), invasive species, farmland fencing, mining, encroachments, and development projects. 
  • This degradation is forcing elephants to move into new areas — including regions that haven’t seen elephants for nearly two centuries — triggering frequent human-elephant conflicts.
  • A notable example is Andhra Pradesh, where elephants migrated from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka between 1980 and 1986, recolonising areas such as Kuppam and Palamaner in Chittoor district.
  • Karnataka, while hosting India’s largest elephant population, faces intense conflict in regions like Nagarhole, Bandipur, and BRT Hills, where forest fires and monoculture plantations worsen habitat loss. 
    • Kerala and Tamil Nadu face similar pressures, with the Nilgiris–Coimbatore belt witnessing 150 human and 170 elephant deaths so far.
  • Experts warn that unchecked habitat fragmentation could escalate conflicts further and endanger elephant populations. 
  • They urge community engagement, awareness drives, and coexistence campaigns in both traditional habitats and newly colonised areas to ensure long-term conservation.

Source: TH

Elephant Population FAQs

Q1: What is the current elephant population in India?

Ans: The 2025 WII report estimates 22,446 elephants across four landscapes, establishing a new DNA-based baseline for future population monitoring.

Q2: What is SAIEE 2021–25?

Ans: The Synchronous All-India Elephant Estimation (SAIEE) 2021–25 uses DNA analysis and grid-based surveys to provide accurate, comparable data on elephant populations.

Q3: Which region hosts the most elephants?

Ans: The Western Ghats lead with over 53% of India’s elephants, mainly in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, followed by Assam in the Northeast.

Q4: Why is habitat fragmentation a major concern?

Ans: Expanding plantations, encroachments, and development projects are shrinking habitats, pushing elephants into human-dominated areas and increasing conflicts.

Q5: What solutions do experts recommend?

Ans: Experts call for community sensitisation, conflict mitigation, and habitat restoration to ensure coexistence and long-term elephant conservation.

India’s Private Investment Slowdown: Why Businesses Aren’t Spending Enough

October 21, 2025
Private Investment

Private Investment Slowdown Latest News

  • Although India’s real GDP growth rates appear robust, policymakers remain cautious, signalling concerns about the underlying economic strength. 
  • The persistent weakness in private sector investment — despite multiple policy incentives by the government — continues to be a major challenge and a key constraint on sustaining long-term economic momentum.

Declining Investment Share in GDP Highlights India’s Growth Concern

  • India’s GDP is driven mainly by two components — private consumption, which contributes around 60%, and investment spending, which enhances the economy’s productive capacity.
  • Investment spending includes private businesses building factories, government infrastructure projects, and household asset creation like housing or livestock purchases. Together, these are termed Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF).
  • Data over the last two decades shows a steady decline in GFCF’s contribution to GDP since 2011–12. 
  • Notably, investment has remained below 30% of GDP through most years since 2014, indicating that India’s growth is being driven more by consumption than by capacity-building investments — a trend that worries policymakers.

Significance of Private Investment for Sustained Growth

  • While the government has been working to boost private consumption through tax reliefs, direct cash transfers, and GST cuts, this is only a means to an end — the real goal is to trigger private investment.
  • Higher consumer demand is expected to encourage businesses to expand, build new factories, and invest in capacity creation. 
  • To support this, the government has increased public spending on infrastructure — roads, ports, and power — hoping to “crowd in” private investment.
  • A thriving private investment environment reduces the burden on government spending. It aligns with the vision of “Minimum Government, Maximum Governance.”
  • Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman recently urged industry leaders to overcome their hesitation, noting that the government has delivered on reforms and now expects the private sector to lead growth by investing and expanding production.

Private Sector’s Investment Share Continues to Decline Despite Policy Push

  • Investment data in India, divided among the government, households, and private sector firms, reveals a clear trend — private businesses are reducing their share of new investments.
  • Since 2019–20, when the government cut corporate tax rates to encourage private investment, the private sector’s contribution to total fixed asset formation has steadily fallen. 
  • The latest available data (up to March 2024) shows this decline continuing, even as overall GDP grew by 12% in FY24.
  • During this period, the government’s share in total investments rose, while private sector and household shares dropped, indicating that recent growth has been driven largely by public spending, not private enterprise.
  • Given that overall investment share has fallen further in FY25, it is unlikely that private sector participation has improved, reinforcing concerns about its continued hesitation to invest despite fiscal and policy incentives.

Private Sector Apathy Poses Risk to India’s Growth Model

  • Despite strong GDP growth, corporate tax cuts, income tax reliefs, and PLI subsidies, the private sector remains reluctant to invest in fresh projects.
  • This persistent investment slowdown raises concerns on two fronts: 
    • it threatens India’s long-term growth prospects; and 
    • undermines the government’s development strategy, which envisions the private sector as the primary engine of job creation and economic expansion.
  • With businesses holding back, the burden of driving growth continues to fall on the government, limiting progress on tackling unemployment and inequality — two of India’s most pressing challenges.

Source: IE

Private Investment Slowdown FAQs

Q1: Why is private investment crucial for India’s growth?

Ans: Private investment drives capacity expansion, productivity, and jobs, reducing dependence on government spending for sustaining long-term economic growth.

Q2: How has India’s investment share changed over time?

Ans: Gross Fixed Capital Formation has declined since 2011–12, staying below 30% of GDP, showing consumption-led rather than investment-led growth.

Q3: Why are policymakers concerned despite high GDP growth?

Ans: Because growth is fuelled mainly by government expenditure, while private businesses remain hesitant to invest, limiting sustainable job creation.

Q4: What steps has the government taken to boost investment?

Ans: Tax cuts, PLI schemes, infrastructure spending, and GST reforms aim to stimulate private sector participation and crowd in investments.

Q5: What risks arise from weak private sector investment?

Ans: It threatens India’s long-term growth momentum, deepens unemployment and inequality, and undermines the goal of private-led economic expansion.

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