UPSC Mains Current Affairs for 24 October 2025

India Drafts AI Content Labelling Rules to Combat Deepfakes

October 24, 2025

AI Content Labelling Latest News

The Indian government has proposed draft rules mandating AI-generated content labelling on social media platforms like YouTube and Instagram to curb the spread of deepfakes and synthetic media.
Under the amendments to the IT Rules, 2021, platforms must:
- Ask users to declare whether uploaded content is AI-generated.
- Ensure such content carries permanent labels or metadata identifiers.
- For videos, the label must cover 10% of the screen area; for audio, it must play during the first 10% of duration.
The move follows rising concerns over digitally altered videos, such as the 2023 Rashmika Mandanna deepfake, which went viral and prompted Prime Minister Narendra Modi to warn that deepfakes pose a new national crisis.

India’s Draft Rules for Labelling AI-Generated Content

The proposed IT Rules amendments require social media platforms to:
- Ask users to declare if uploaded material is AI-generated or synthetic.
- Use automated tools to verify such declarations.
- Clearly label confirmed AI-generated content with a visible notice.
If platforms fail to comply, they risk losing legal immunity under safe harbour provisions, making them liable for unverified or unlabeled synthetic content.
The draft also defines “synthetically generated information” as content created, altered, or modified using computer algorithms in a way that appears authentic or real.

Existing AI Labelling Practices and India’s Stricter Proposal

Platforms like Meta and Google already use AI content labels, asking creators to declare if content was made or modified using AI.
- Instagram tags such posts with an “AI Info” label, though enforcement is inconsistent.
- YouTube adds an “Altered or Synthetic Content” tag, explaining how AI influenced the video’s creation.
Meta has also partnered with other tech firms under the Partnership on AI (PAI) to develop common identification standards and tools to detect invisible AI markers across platforms like Google, OpenAI, Adobe, and Midjourney.
However, these global measures are mostly reactive, activated after content is flagged.
In contrast, India’s proposed rules require companies to proactively verify and label AI-generated content using automated detection tools, even without user notification.

Bollywood Pushes Back as Deepfakes Threaten Celebrity Rights

The rise of AI-generated deepfakes has alarmed India’s entertainment industry, prompting stars like Amitabh Bachchan, Aishwarya Rai, Akshay Kumar, and Hrithik Roshan to take legal action to protect their personality rights — their likeness, voice, and image.
Experts note that India lacks explicit legal protection for personality rights, relying instead on a patchwork of existing laws for limited safeguards.
The issue gained attention after the production company behind Raanjhanaa reportedly used AI to alter the film’s ending without the consent of its director and actors.
This highlighted the urgent need for clearer legal frameworks against deepfakes in Indian entertainment.

How Global Regulations Are Responding to the Deepfake Challenge

Countries worldwide are introducing AI labelling and protection laws to curb the spread of deepfakes and synthetic media.
European Union: The AI Act mandates that all AI-generated or altered content — including text, audio, video, and images — must be clearly labelled in a machine-readable format. Entities using AI for public-interest content must also disclose artificial generation or alteration.
China: Recently enforced AI labelling rules require visible markers for chatbots, voice synthesis, face swaps, and scene editing. Hidden watermarks can be used for other AI content. Platforms must detect, label, and alert users about AI-generated material.
Denmark: Proposes giving citizens copyright ownership over their likeness, allowing them to demand removal of any digitally altered content created without consent — a pioneering move in personal image rights protection.

Source: IE | ET

AI content labelling FAQs

Q1: What are India’s new AI content labelling rules?

Ans: India’s draft IT Rules require social media platforms to label AI-generated content and use automated tools to verify synthetic material before publishing.

Q2: Why has India proposed AI content labelling?

Ans: The move aims to curb misuse of AI-generated deepfakes that spread misinformation and misuse celebrity likenesses online.

Q3: How will AI-generated content be labelled under the new rules?

Ans: Videos must display visible labels covering 10% of the screen, while audio must include an audible disclaimer for the first 10% of duration.

Q4: How does India’s proposal differ from global practices?

Ans: Unlike the EU or China, India’s law mandates proactive detection and verification of AI content by platforms, not just voluntary user declarations.

Q5: Which celebrities have raised concerns about deepfakes in India?

Ans: Prominent actors like Amitabh Bachchan, Aishwarya Rai, and Hrithik Roshan have sought legal protection against AI misuse of their likenesses and voices.

Supreme Court Pushes Jharkhand to Notify Saranda Forests as Wildlife Sanctuary

October 24, 2025

Saranda Forests Latest News

The Supreme Court bench, led by the Chief Justice of India, has directed the Jharkhand government to formally notify a new wildlife sanctuary in Saranda, one of India’s richest Sal Forest regions.
The move highlights Saranda’s ecological importance and its history of illegal mining, drawing national attention to the need for stronger biodiversity protection in this forested area spanning southwest Jharkhand and Odisha.

Background of the Case

The Supreme Court’s direction to the Jharkhand government stems from a plea seeking compliance with a July 2022 order of the National Green Tribunal (NGT), which had asked the state to consider declaring Saranda Forest as a wildlife sanctuary.
The plea before the NGT called for the notification of an eco-sensitive zone in the Saranda/Sasangada region of West Singhbhum district, Jharkhand.

The 1968 “Game Sanctuary” Argument

The petitioner claimed Saranda had been declared a “game sanctuary” in 1968 under undivided Bihar.
Under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, such earlier declarations automatically become “deemed sanctuaries.”
However, the NGT found no official records confirming this status but recognised Saranda as one of India’s finest Sal forests and directed the Jharkhand government to re-examine its sanctuary potential.

Supreme Court Steps In

After Jharkhand failed to act on the NGT’s order, the case reached the Supreme Court.
A CJI-led Bench in November 2024 directed the state to expedite the process and, between November 2024 and September 2025, criticised delays and non-compliance.
The Court even warned of contempt when officials tried to alter proposed boundaries to accommodate mining areas.

Saranda’s Ecological Significance and the Impact of Mining

Located in West Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, the Saranda Forest Division spans 856 sq km, of which 816 sq km is reserved forest and the rest protected forest.
The name Saranda means “seven hundred hills”, reflecting the region’s undulating terrain and dense Sal forests.
The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has recognised Saranda as a biological and ecological hotspot, historically known for its rich biodiversity.

Biodiversity and Wildlife Corridors

Saranda supports diverse wildlife, including elephants, four-horned antelope, and sloth bears.
It also contains three elephant corridors, ensuring ecological connectivity with neighbouring forests across Jharkhand and Odisha.
Although tigers have been sighted in the past, they have not established a resident population in recent years due to habitat fragmentation and human pressure.

Mining and Habitat Degradation

The forest has suffered from intensive and illegal mining, particularly of iron ore and manganese, leading to loss of wildlife density and habitat fragmentation.
The Indian Council of Forest Research and Education (ICFRE), in its Carrying Capacity Study of the Saranda–Chaibasa region, confirmed that mining had severely affected forest ecology and wildlife health.

Findings from Ecological Studies

The WII’s 2016 assessment revealed a decline in butterfly, mammal, and bird populations, showing a negative correlation between proximity to mines and species richness.
It recommended urgent protection measures, including the creation of a wildlife sanctuary, to curb further ecological degradation.

Decline in Elephant Population

Saranda once hosted a thriving elephant population, but continued habitat loss has forced many herds to migrate to Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
According to the latest 2025 Elephant Estimation Report, Jharkhand now has only 217 elephants, distributed between two main clusters — Palamau and Singhbhum (which includes Saranda).
Elephant corridors to the south and east of Saranda are now under severe stress, further isolating herds and threatening their long-term survival.

Jharkhand’s Position Before the Supreme Court

Jharkhand government has told the Supreme Court that while it supports the declaration of Saranda as a wildlife sanctuary, it also wants to ensure that the rights of tribals and forest dwellers are fully protected.
The state emphasised that Saranda falls under the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution and is home to Ho, Munda, and allied Adivasi communities, including particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs).
The government argued that declaring the area as a sanctuary could criminalise traditional livelihood activities, thereby violating the Forest Rights Act (FRA) and the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA).

Mining Significance of the Region

The Saranda region is crucial for India’s mining industry, holding about 26% of the country’s total iron ore reserves.
According to an interlocutory application filed by the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL), active mines in and around Saranda currently produce 10–15 million tonnes of iron ore annually, roughly 5% of India’s total output.

History of Illegal Mining in Saranda

The controversy over mining in Saranda is long-standing. Under the UPA government, the Justice M. B. Shah Commission of Inquiry investigated illegal mining in Jharkhand, uncovering widespread violations.
The Commission reported illegal extraction of iron ore worth ₹14,403 crore and manganese worth ₹138 crore, carried out in violation of mining and environmental laws.

Efforts Toward Sustainable Mining

Following the Shah Commission’s recommendations, the Union Environment Ministry prepared a Sustainable Mining Plan for the Saranda region.
The plan designated “go” and “no-go” zones for iron ore mining, with an annual production cap of 64 million tonnes, adjustable based on environmental sustainability.
This framework was meant to balance economic interests with ecological preservation, but Saranda continues to face challenges from mining pressure and habitat degradation.

The Balancing Act

The Supreme Court’s ongoing oversight now places Saranda at the intersection of conservation and development.
While Jharkhand stresses tribal rights and economic dependence on mining, the court’s focus remains on biodiversity protection, ensuring that the sanctuary declaration proceeds without undermining constitutional and livelihood rights of local communities.

Source: IE | HT

Saranda Forests FAQs

Q1: Why is Saranda Forest in news?

Ans: The Supreme Court has asked Jharkhand to formally notify Saranda as a wildlife sanctuary to preserve its rich biodiversity amid mining pressures.

Q2: What is the ecological importance of Saranda?

Ans: Saranda, meaning “seven hundred hills,” hosts dense Sal forests, elephants, and wildlife corridors connecting Jharkhand and Odisha.

Q3: What are the key concerns over Saranda’s mining?

Ans: Illegal and excessive mining of iron ore and manganese has led to deforestation, habitat loss, and declining wildlife populations.

Q4: How has the Jharkhand government responded?

Ans: The state supports the sanctuary proposal but insists on safeguarding tribal and forest dwellers’ rights under the Forest Rights and PESA Acts.

Q5: What did the Shah Commission reveal about Saranda?

Ans: The Justice M. B. Shah Commission uncovered illegal mining worth over ₹14,000 crore in Saranda, prompting calls for sustainable mining practices.

U.S. Sanctions on Russian Oil Giants, Global Energy and Geopolitical Repercussions

October 24, 2025

U.S. Sanctions on Russian Oil Giants Latest News

Recently, the U.S. President Donald Trump imposed sweeping sanctions on Russia’s two largest oil companies — Rosneft and Lukoil — as part of escalating efforts to cut off funding for Russia’s ongoing war in Ukraine.
The move has implications for global oil markets, India’s energy strategy, and the India–U.S. relationship.

Background - Sanctions Amid Prolonged Conflict

The Russia–Ukraine war, now in its fourth year, continues to strain global diplomacy and energy markets.
The new U.S. sanctions target Rosneft and Lukoil, responsible for over 5% of global oil output, contributing over 5 million barrels per day (mbd) globally, including 2 mbd in seaborne exports.
The U.S. Treasury has given companies time till November 21 to wind down transactions with these entities, to curb Russia’s oil revenue, which funds nearly one-fourth of its federal budget and sustains the war effort.

India’s Position and Compliance

India’s position:

- - India, the second-largest buyer of Russian crude after China (with over 35% of total imports sourced from Russia in 2025), faces pressure to reduce imports.
  - Historically, India avoided oil imports from Iran and Venezuela after similar U.S. sanctions, signalling a possible precedent.
  - President Trump claimed India has agreed to reduce oil purchases from Russia to “almost nothing” by year-end.
  - The Indian PM has reportedly assured cooperation while balancing India’s energy security needs.

Private refiners’ response:

- - Reliance Industries, operating the world’s largest refinery at Jamnagar, plans to halt or reduce imports, including its long-term deal with Rosneft (approx. 500,000 barrels/day).
  - Nayara Energy, partly owned by Rosneft, has remained silent but is expected to adjust supply chains.

Public sector refiners’ review:

- IOC, BPCL, and HPCL are reassessing trade documents to ensure no direct dealings with sanctioned firms.
- However, some oil may still enter India via intermediaries, highlighting challenges in total disengagement.

Economic and Diplomatic Fallout

Trade tensions:

- - The U.S. has doubled tariffs on Indian goods to 50%, adding a 25% punitive duty on Russian crude imports.
  - India termed the move “unfair, unjustified, and unreasonable.”
  - Negotiations are underway for a bilateral trade deal that could reduce tariffs in exchange for reduced Russian oil imports.

Impact on global oil markets:

Oil prices surged 3% following the sanctions.

- The sanctions could disrupt global supply chains, particularly in Asia, where demand remains high.

International Reactions

Russia dismissed the sanctions, claiming “immunity” to Western restrictions and pointing out that its revenue comes mainly from taxing output rather than exports.
Ukraine’s President Volodymyr Zelenskyy welcomed the move but urged for stronger measures to pressure Moscow into a ceasefire.
The European Union is considering using frozen Russian assets to fund a €140 billion loan for Kyiv’s reconstruction.

Strategic Implications for India

India faces a policy dilemma - balancing strategic autonomy, energy security, and geopolitical alignment.
The shift could push India to diversify oil imports from Middle Eastern and African suppliers.
Maintaining stable ties with both Washington and Moscow will test India’s multi-alignment diplomacy.

Way Forward

Diversification of energy sources: Strengthen ties with Gulf nations, the U.S., and Africa for stable supplies.
Negotiated flexibility: India should seek exemptions or phased compliance from U.S. sanctions.
Strategic oil reserves: Enhance domestic reserves to cushion against supply disruptions.
Diplomatic balancing: Continue pursuing strategic autonomy within frameworks like QUAD, SCO and BRICS.

Conclusion

The latest U.S. sanctions signify a sharp escalation in the economic front of the Ukraine conflict, with wide-ranging repercussions for global energy markets and India’s foreign policy.
For India, aligning with global sanctions while preserving energy security and strategic independence will remain the central challenge in the evolving multipolar world order.

Source: TH | IE

U.S. Sanctions on Russian Oil Giants FAQs

Q1: How do the recent U.S. sanctions on Rosneft and Lukoil reflect the use of energy as a geopolitical tool?

Ans: The sanctions aim to choke Russia’s oil revenues—the key funding source for its Ukraine war.

Q2: What are the implications of U.S. sanctions on Russian oil majors for India’s energy security?

Ans: India faces potential supply disruptions and reduced access to discounted crude, necessitating diversification of energy sources.

Q3: How do the U.S. sanctions impact India’s pursuit of strategic autonomy in foreign policy?

Ans: The sanctions test India’s ability to balance relations with both Washington and Moscow while safeguarding its independent foreign policy stance.

Q4: How the U.S. sanctions on Russian oil giants could reshape global crude oil markets?

Ans: The restrictions on Rosneft and Lukoil are expected to disrupt supply chains, increase demand for Middle Eastern and Atlantic Basin grades, etc.

Q5: What are the possible diplomatic and economic options available to India in response to the new U.S. sanctions?

Ans: India can pursue trade negotiations with the U.S., diversify import partners, strengthen strategic oil reserves, etc.

Stubble Burning in Punjab, Decline in Numbers and Data Gaps

October 24, 2025

Stubble Burning Latest News

The latest satellite-based data shows that while Punjab’s stubble burning incidents have reportedly declined by 70% in 2024, the total burnt farmland area remains almost unchanged.

Stubble Burning in Punjab: An Evolving Challenge

Every autumn, vast swathes of north India are engulfed in haze as farmers burn paddy residue to clear fields for the next wheat crop.
This annual cycle, especially prevalent in Punjab and Haryana, contributes significantly to air pollution across northern India, including the National Capital Region (NCR).
The practice of stubble burning remains one of India’s most persistent environmental challenges, despite several years of government intervention, technological support, and public awareness campaigns.

The Problem of Crop Residue Burning

Punjab, a leading rice and wheat-producing state, relies heavily on mechanised harvesting using combine harvesters.
These machines leave behind paddy stubble that is difficult to remove manually. Given the short three-week window between paddy harvesting and wheat sowing, farmers find burning the residue the most cost-effective and time-efficient option.
While the method helps prepare the fields quickly, it leads to massive emissions of particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), nitrogen oxides, and greenhouse gases.
The smoke drifts toward neighbouring states, worsening air quality across Delhi-NCR and beyond.

Trends and Statistics: Is the Problem Really Declining?

Recent data indicate a complex picture. According to the Punjab government’s satellite-based estimates, the state recorded 10,909 cases of stubble burning in 2024, a sharp 70% decline from 36,663 cases in 2023.
This drop has been attributed to a mix of factors, including widespread flooding in mid-2024, which left large stretches of farmland inundated, and government-led initiatives promoting crop residue management.
However, while the number of incidents has declined, the total burnt area has not shown a corresponding reduction.
Data from the Punjab Remote Sensing Centre (PRSC) and the Punjab Pollution Control Board (PPCB) reveal that in 2024, nearly 19.17 lakh hectares of farmland were affected by stubble burning, almost identical to 19.14 lakh hectares in 2023.
This suggests that although fewer fire incidents are being recorded, the fires that do occur are covering larger areas or are being underreported by existing detection systems.

Understanding the Data Discrepancy

Experts point out that the apparent contradiction arises from technical and observational limitations in the way fire incidents are recorded.
Satellite systems such as MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) and VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) detect fires based on thermal infrared imaging, essentially identifying heat anomalies on the Earth’s surface.
However, these satellites pass over Punjab only a few times a day, often missing short-lived or smaller fires that occur in the late afternoon or evening, which are common in Punjab’s fragmented landholdings.
A study by the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Mohali, found that cloud cover, haze, and the short duration of many farm fires lead to significant underreporting.
Additionally, as farmers become aware of satellite monitoring, some have started covering up burnt patches or conducting burns strategically to avoid detection.

Advances in Monitoring and the Role of New Technologies

Despite these limitations, advances in optical satellite imaging are improving accuracy.
According to experts, optical sensors like Sentinel-2 can detect post-fire discolouration and burn scars, providing a more precise estimate of the total burnt area even when thermal sensors miss direct fire events.
They emphasise that future assessments must integrate thermal and optical satellite observations, supported by ground-based verification, to accurately capture both the number of incidents and the extent of damage.

Policy Interventions and Way Forward

The Central and Punjab governments have undertaken several initiatives over the years to tackle the stubble burning problem. These include:
- Subsidised Crop Residue Management (CRM) Machines: Distribution of happy seeders, super straw management systems, and mulchers to promote in-situ residue management.
- Ex-situ Biomass Utilisation: Encouraging biomass-based power plants and ethanol production to use paddy straw.
- Financial Incentives: Direct benefit transfers to farmers adopting non-burning methods.
- Monitoring and Enforcement: Deployment of real-time monitoring via satellites and drones, coupled with local enforcement by district administrations.
However, experts argue that these measures need long-term economic incentives, not just penalties or machinery subsidies.
Shifting to short-duration paddy varieties, promoting crop diversification, and ensuring timely procurement and financial compensation for alternative practices are crucial for sustainable change.

Rethinking Metrics of Success

While the declining number of recorded fires is encouraging, it is not a complete measure of progress. Thus, future assessments must focus not just on the number of incidents but also on fire intensity, duration, and emission load to accurately gauge environmental impact.
In the long term, the fight against stubble burning will depend on integrated policies combining technology, economics, and behavioural change, ensuring that sustainable practices are both viable and profitable for Punjab’s farmers.

Source: TH

Stubble Burning FAQs

Q1: Why do farmers in Punjab resort to stubble burning?

Ans: Due to the short window between paddy harvesting and wheat sowing, burning is the quickest and cheapest way to clear fields.

Q2: Has stubble burning in Punjab declined recently?

Ans: Yes, official fire counts have dropped by nearly 70% in 2024, though the total burnt area remains largely unchanged.

Q3: Why do satellite data and ground realities differ?

Ans: Satellite systems often miss smaller, short-duration fires and are affected by cloud cover and limited overpasses.

Q4: What technologies are improving stubble burn monitoring?

Ans: Optical sensors like Sentinel-2 and integrated remote sensing systems now provide more accurate burnt-area estimates.

Q5: What long-term solutions are proposed to reduce stubble burning?

Ans: Crop diversification, machinery subsidies, biomass utilization, and incentivizing non-burning practices are key policy measures.

PM Vidyalaxmi Scheme: Transforming Education Loans for Students

October 24, 2025

What’s in today’s article?

Why in News?
What is PM Vidyalaxmi?
How it is different from past schemes?
Challenges faced by PM Vidyalaxmi

Why in News?

Recently, the Union Cabinet chaired by PM Modi approved a new Central Sector Scheme, PM Vidyalaxmi, which seeks to provide financial support to meritorious students applying for higher education.

Students will now be eligible to get collateral-free, guarantor-free loans from banks and financial institutions to cover the full amount of tuition fees and other expenses related to the course.

What is PM Vidyalaxmi?

About
- It is a new Central Sector initiative aimed at supporting meritorious students financially so they can pursue higher education without economic constraints.
- This scheme is rooted in the National Education Policy, 2020, which advocates for financial assistance to deserving students across both public and private Higher Education Institutions (HEIs).
Objectives
- Ensure Financial Inclusion in Education: Enable meritorious students to pursue higher education without financial hurdles.
- Support Top Educational Institutions: Applicable only to top-quality HEIs as per the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF).
- Provide Transparent and Digital Access: Use a fully digital, transparent, and student-friendly platform for loan processing and management.
Features
- Loan Availability:
  - Eligibility: Any student who secures admission to a Quality Higher Education Institution is eligible.
  - Loan Terms: Collateral-free and guarantor-free loans will be offered through banks and financial institutions, covering the full amount of tuition and other course-related expenses.
  - Institutional Coverage: Applies to institutions ranked in the NIRF top 100 (both government and private) and state government HEIs ranked in the 101-200 bracket, as well as all central government institutions.
  - Coverage Scope: In the initial phase, 860 QHEIs qualify, potentially benefiting over 22 lakh students.
Credit Guarantee Support:
- For loans up to ₹7.5 lakhs, a 75% credit guarantee on the outstanding amount is provided, encouraging banks to make education loans accessible to more students.
Interest Subsidy:
- Eligibility: Students with an annual family income of up to ₹8 lakhs and not benefiting from other government scholarships or interest subvention schemes.
- Subsidy Terms: A 3% interest subvention on loans up to ₹10 lakhs during the moratorium period.
- Beneficiary Priority: Preference is given to students in government institutions and technical/professional courses.

How it is different from past schemes?

Expanded Eligibility
- PM Vidyalaxmi covers middle-income families, unlike previous schemes which were limited to low-income groups, and offers benefits regardless of caste.
- Simplified Loan Process
  - Students can apply through the Vidyalaxmi portal, which links to major public and private banks, simplifies the application process, and facilitates loan tracking.
Focus on NIRF Rankings
- Eligibility is restricted to institutions ranked in the top 100 of the NIRF overall, category-specific, or domain-specific lists.
  - For earlier schemes, the eligible institutions needed to be accredited with the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) and the National Board of Accreditation (NBA).
  - With 820 universities of NAAC and 15,501 colleges, along with 3,348 NBA institutions, the total was about 20,000 institutions.

Challenges faced by PM Vidyalaxmi

Reduced Institution Coverage
- Only institutions ranked in NIRF are eligible, significantly lowering the number of qualifying institutions compared to past schemes.
Performance Stakes
- With eligibility tied to rankings, students must perform exceptionally well in entrance tests to access loans.
Exclusion Risks
- Students in non-NIRF ranked institutions face higher interest rates or loan rejection.
Institutional Competition
- Rankings become crucial, incentivizing institutions to seek higher NIRF standings to attract students benefiting from the scheme.

Q.1. How does the PM Vidyalaxmi scheme differ from past education loan schemes?

PM Vidyalaxmi expands eligibility to middle-income families and simplifies the loan process through a digital portal. It focuses on institutions ranked under NIRF, unlike earlier schemes based on NAAC and NBA accreditation.

Q.2. What are the challenges associated with PM Vidyalaxmi?

The scheme reduces institutional coverage by limiting eligibility to NIRF-ranked institutions. This raises stakes for students and institutions to perform well, while others face higher interest rates or loan rejection risks.

News: Vidyalaxmi education loan scheme: List of eligible institutions, comparison with other schemes | Press Reader | Times of India