Prelims:History of India and Indian National Movement.
Mains: Indian Culture - Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.
Indo-Greeks
After Alexander died in 323 BCE, many Greeks settled on India's northwestern border with Bactria. The Indo-Greeks were Bactrian Greeks who ruled over parts of northwest India between the second and early first centuries BCE. Since the successors of Ashoka were too weak to hold ground, a series of invasions on the northwestern border of India started.
Map: Indo-Greeks
Indo Greeks
Period: 130 BCE - 80 BCE
Capital: Taxila and Sialkot
At the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, the Indo-Greeks were the first to invade India.
They introduced the practice of governorship and the use of curtains in India.
They patronised both Buddhism and Hinduism. The Maghera inscription near Mathura gives an account of Indo-Greek rule.
Exquisite coinage system: The coins give us a visualpicture of the kings. Minted in the same style as Greek coins of silver, they carried the portrait of the reigning king on one side with his name.
They were the first to issue gold coins bearing inscriptions of images of kings and gods.
The initial series used images of Greek deities, but later coins had images of Indian deities as well.
The coins of the Greek kings in India were bilingual (Greek on the front side and in the Pali language).
They introduced Hellenistic art to the north-western frontier of India.
Demetrius:
He was the son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I and invaded Afghanistan and Punjab.
Appolodotus and Menander: From Taxila, he sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander, for further conquests.
Appolodotus conquered Sindh and marched up to Ujjain.
Menander extended his rule up to Mathura, and from there, he attempted to capture Pataliputra. But he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga.
Menander (165/145–130 BCE)
He was also known as Milinda, and the capital of his kingdom was Sakala (Sialkot).
Rule and conquests: He ruled a large kingdom in the northwest of the country. He is said to have raided the Gangetic region along with the kings of Panchala and Mathura.
Religion: He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena (Nagarjuna).
Coinage: His coins have been found over an extensive area ranging from the valleys of the Kabul and Indus rivers to as far as western Uttar Pradesh. He is described as “king” and “soter” or saviour in his coins.
Related literature:Milinda-panho written by Nagasena (question-and-answer discussion on Buddhism with the teacher Nagasena)
Antialcidas (115–95 BCE)
He sent his emissary, Heliodorus, to the court of King Bhagabhadra and erected a pillar or garudadhvaja with its capital adorned by a figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna (Vasudeva). This is also known as Heliodorus Pillar or Besnagar Period.
Decline:
Yavana invasion of Ayodhya (Saketa) and further east into the Magadha territory.
Cessation of land to Shungas.
Loss of Bacteria to the Parthians and Sakas.
Internal squabbles among many claimants to power.
Sakas (150 BC – 400 AD)
The Scythians, who were originally from Central Asia, were referred to as 'Shaka' in India. Interestingly, Patanjali refers to the Shakas as 'Anirvasita (pure) Shudras' in his Mahabhasya. The Shakas were divided into five branches, each with their own seat of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.
Map of Sakas
Sakas
Period: 150 BC – 400 AD
Capital: Taxila and Mathura
Origin: They were also known as the Scythians and belonged to central Asia (Western China).
Rule of extent: They replaced the Indo-greeks in India and extended their rule over northwestern India.
Division: There were mainly two different groups: Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and Western Satraps ruling over Maharashtra.
Related works:
Yuga Purana mentions an invasion of Pataliputra by the Scythians sometime during the 1st century BCE.
The consecration of a Buddha relic in a stupa is mentioned in the Mathura lion capital, which is linked to several Indo-Scythian kings from Maues to Rajuvula.
Coinage:
The Western Satraps' coins bear the king's head on one side and the Buddhist chaitya or stupa on the other.
Prakrit language has been found written in many scripts.
Maues
The founder of the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C.
His son and successor was Azes I.
Rudradaman I
He was the famous Saka ruler who repaired Lake Sudarshan for better irrigation.
The inscription at Girnar (Junagarh, written in Sanskrit) mentions his achievements.
He issued the first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
Parthians / Pahalavas (247 BC - 224 AD)
Parthians / Pahalavas
Period: 247 BC - 224 AD
Capital: Taxila
Rule of extent: Parthians ruled over the present region of Khorasan in Iran
It was founded by Arsaces I of Parthia when he rebelled against the Seleucid Empire
They replaced the Sakas in North-Western India.
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the presence of Parthian kings fighting with each other in the area of Sindh.
Takht-i-Bahi inscription mentions Parthian rule in the north-western area of Pakistan.
They mostly followed Zoroastrianism and had strong cultural similarities with the Shakas.
St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity during the reign of Gondophernes.
Coins of the Hindu deity Shiva have also been found issued in the reign of Gondophares I.
Kushanas
Kushan dynasty was the ruling line descended from the Yuezhi, a people that ruled over most of the northern Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia during the first three centuries of the Common Era. The Yuezhi conquered Bactria in the 2nd century BCE and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which was that of the Kushans.
Map of Kushana
Kushanas
Period: 2nd century BC – 3rd century AD.
Capital: Peshawar, Taxila, Mathura
Origin: They were the branch of the Yuchi tribe, originally belonging to central Asia. They replaced the Sakas and Pahalvas.
The extent of the empire: From Oxus to the Ganges, from Khorasan in central Asia to Pataliputra in Bihar.
Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana, mentions in detail the rule of the Kushan kings and their benevolence towards Buddhism.
Title: Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title Devaputra, or “son of god”, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.
Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I
Founder of the Kushana dynasty.
Occupied Kabul Valley and issued coins in his name, minting copper coins in imitation of Roman coins.
Wima Kadphises or Kadphises II
Conquered the whole of northwestern India upto Mathura.
He issued gold coins with titles like “Lord of the Whole World”.
Kanishka (78-120 AD)
He was the most important ruler of this dynasty and the founder of the Saka Era in 78 AD. He extended his rule from Central Asia to North India.
He patronised Buddhism and scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna.
He convened the fourth Buddhist council at Kundalvan in Kashmir with Vasumitra as its president. It led to the division of Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana.
He built the city of Purushapura (Peshawar) as his capital.
He was defeated by the Chinese general Pancho in his first expedition to China, but later he defeated Panyang (son of Pancho).
He sent missionaries to Central Asia and China for the propagation of Buddhism.
Kushana Empire was divided into Satraps (provinces), ruled by a Mahakshatrapa (military governor).
Gramika and Padrapala were the village headman who collected the king’s dues and took cognisance of crimes in his area.
They used dual hereditary rule, in which two rulers held power concurrently.
Military administration: The kshatrapas exerted their authority through “dandanayaka and mahadandanayaka”, semi-military officers.
Coinage: Kushana coins were of the highest quality and conformed to the weight standards of Roman coins. In the coins, Kushana rulers are referred to as “king ofkings”, “Caesar”, “lord of all lands”, and other such titles.
Art and architecture
Development of art and literature flourished partly due to royal patronage and partly due to other factors, like the growing ascendancy of Mahayana Buddhism.
Art: They patronised Mathura and Gandhara Art. They had Greek influence in Gandhara Art.
Architecture: The Buddhists began to carve out rock caves in the hills of western India, which served as religious centres with chaityas and viharas, stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri caves in Mumbai.
Literature:Buddhacharita,Saundarananda andSariputraPrakaran by Asvaghosha (author of the first Sanskrit play), Paramita Sutras by Nagarjuna, Mahavibasha Shastra by Vasumitra, Charakasamhita by Charak,
Heavy influence of Greek or Hellenistic sculpture, so it is also known as Indo-Greek art.
Early Gandhara School used bluish-grey sandstone, while the later period saw the use of mud and stucco.
Mainly Buddhist imagery, influenced by the Greco-Roman pantheon.
Patronised by Kushana rulers.
Developed in the North West Frontier, in the modern-day area of Kandahar.
The Buddha is shown in a spiritual state, with wavy hair. He wears fewer ornaments and is seated in a yogi position. The eyes are half-closed as in meditation. A protrusion is shown on the head, signifying the omniscience of Buddha.
It was developed indigenously and not influenced by external cultures.
The sculptures of Mathura School were made using spotted red sandstone.
It had influence of all three religions of the time, i.e. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.
It was patronised by the Kushana rulers.
It was developed in and around Mathura, Sonkh and Kankalitila. Kankalitila was famous for Jain sculptures.
Buddha is shown in a delighted mood with a smiling face. The body symbolises masculinity, wearing a tight dress. The face and head are shaven. Buddha is seated in padmasana with different mudras, and his face reflects grace. A similar protuberance is shown on the head.
Indo-Sasanians
They were the branch of the Sasanian Persians, who rose due to the decline to Kushanas.
They occupied the lower Indus region in the mid-third century AD.
They followed the Zoroastrian religion and issued extensive coins inspired by Kushana coinage.
Contribution of foreign invasions in Indian History
Structures and Pottery:
The Shaka-Kushan phase saw a distinct advance in building activities. The use of burnt bricks for flooring and tiles for both flooring and roofing was used. The period also saw the construction of brick walls.
The characteristic pottery is red ware, both plain and polished, with medium to fine fabric. The distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels.
Better Cavalry:
The Shakas and Kushans introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a large scale.
They popularised the use of reins and saddles, which appear in the Buddhist sculpture of the second and third centuries AD.
The Shakas and Kushans introduced the turban, tunic, trousers, and long heavy coat.
The Central Asians also brought in caps, helmets, and boots which were used by warriors.
Trade and Agriculture:
The coming of the Central Asian people established intimate contacts between Central Asia and India.
The Kushans controlled the Silk Route, which started from China and passed through their empire in Central Asia.
Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale.
The Kushans also promoted agriculture. The earliest archaeological traces of large-scale irrigation in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and western Central Asia date to the Kushan period.
Polity:
The Kushans adopted the pompous title of 'king of kings', which indicates that they collected tributes from numerous small princes.
The Shakas and Kushans strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship. Kushan kings called themselves sons of god.
The Kushans strengthened the satrap system of government adopted by the Shakas. The empire was divided into numerous satrapies, and each was placed under the rule of a satrap.
Some curious practices such as hereditary- dual rule, that is, two kings ruling in the same kingdom simultaneously.
New Elements in Indian Society: The Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians, and the Kushans were foreigners who eventually assimilated their identity in India. In no other period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society on such a large scale as they were in post-Maurya times.
Religious Developments:
Some rulers and others from Central Asia adopted Vaishnavism, while few other rulers adopted Buddhism.
The Kushan rulers worshipped both Shiva and the Buddha, and the images of these two gods appeared on the Kushan coins.
This period saw the development of Mahayana Buddhism during the rule of Kanishka.
Art and literature:
This period saw the development of two art schools of sculptures: Gandhara School of Art and Mathura School of Art.
They promoted the use of Greek, Kharoshti and Brahmi script and Greek, Prakirt and Sanskrit languages.
The development of Mahayana led to new texts like Mahavatsu and Divyavadana.
Natyashastra of Bharata and Kamasutra of Vatsyayana are attributed to this period.
Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Mains
Q) Highlight the Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in Gandhara art. (2019)
Q) Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (2016)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q) What is the difference between the Roman and Greek art?
Ancient Greek artists more focus on individualism and idealism, whereas ancient Roman artists more focus on realism and highlighting the spirits of their rulers. The idealistic style of Greeks is reflected in the muscular depictions of Gods and other men showing strength and beauty.
Q) Who introduced the System of Curtains in drama?
Indo-Greeks introduced the system of curtains in drama in India.
