Southern Kingdoms in Medieval India

                                                                                                                   Western Chalukyas Rulers

Period: 975 – 1200 AD

Capital: Manyakheta and Kalyani (Basavakalyan)

• Founder: The Chalukya dynasty was founded by Tailapa II in 975 AD by defeating the Rashtrakuta ruler Kakka II (Karaka). 
• The extent of rule: They ruled over the western Deccan in south India (parts of present Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh).
• Sources: Information about Western Chalukya history has been mentioned mainly in Kannada literary sources like Gada Yuddha, Vikramankadeva Charitam etc. Also, numismatic sources like the punch-marked gold pagodas with Kannada and Nagari legends provide information about the Chalukyas.

Important Rulers

Tailapa II (957 – 997)

• Sources: Gadag records mention the information about his rule. 
• Military conquests: He defeated Paramara King Munja in 995 AD.
• Contribution: He patronised a Kannada poet Ranna, one of the gems of Kannada literature.

Satyashraya (997–1008)

• He was at war with the eastern Chalukyas and Cholas.
• Rajendra I defeated him under the reign of Rajaraja I. 

Someshwara I (1042 – 1068)

• Titles: Ahavamalla or Trilokamalla.
• He moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in 1042.
• Military conquests: 
  • Battle of Koppam: Chola King Rajadhiraja Chola I was killed in this battle. 
  • Battle of Vijayawada: He was defeated by Chola Emperor Virarajendra Chola.

Vikramaditya VI (1076 – 1126)

• Succession: He defeated his brother Someshwara II with the Chola's help during the reign of Kulottunga I.
• Titles: Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla
• Source: He is mentioned as a hero in Vikramankadevacharita, written by Kashmir poet Bilhana.
• Military conquests: He won Kanchi and was at war with Hoysala King Vishnu.

Decline

Someshvara IV was expelled into exile in 1189 by the Seuna kings. Western Chalukyas faced invasions from the Seunas and Hoysalas, and Hoysala Empire finally destroyed them.

                              Art, Architecture and Literature

Art and Architecture

• Location: Most are in the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab region of present-day central Karnataka.
• Material: They started using lathe-turned (tuned) pillars and soapstone (Chloritic Schist) as fundamentally structural and sculptural material.
• Ornamentation: They promoted the use of ornamentation on the outer walls of the shrine.
• Mandap: These temples are either Ekakutas, which have one mandapa and one shrine, or Dvikutas, which have two shrines connected by a common hall.
• Vesara style: They are a blend of both the Nagara as well as Dravidian temple architecture. It is also known as “Karnatakadravida”.
• Stepped wells: These temples have ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni), which served as ritual bathing places.

Kashvishweshwara Temple at Lakkundi

• Location: Gadag district of Karnataka.
• Patron: Western Chalukya rulers built it, and later additions were made by Hoyasala King Veera Ballala II.
• Features: It is a Dvikuta temple where Kasivisvesvara linga faces east, and Surya deva (Sun) faces west.

Dodda Basappa Temple

• Location: Gadag district of Karnataka.
• Features: 
  • It is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • It is based on the stellate plan, which is an uninterrupted 24-pointed star-shaped floor plan. 

Mahadeva Temple, Itagi

• Location: It is located in the town of Itagi in the Koppal Districpresent-day central Karnataka'sf Karnataka.
• Patron: It was built during the reign of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI in 1112 AD.
• Features:
  • It is dedicated to lord Shiva and is an example of Dravida articulation with a Nagara superstructure.
  • The use of soapstone material is abundant. 

Trikuteshwara Temple, Gadag

• Location: Gadag district of Karnataka.
• Paton: It was built during the reign of Someshwara I in the 11th century. 
• Features: 
  • It is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • There is a shrine with ornate pillars dedicated to Saraswathi.

Literature

• This was the period of growth in Kannada and Sanskrit literature in South India.
• Literary works during this period includes: 
  • Chandombudhi and Karnataka Kadambari, both written by Nagavarma I
  • Rannakanda written by Ranna
  • Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka written by Jagaddala Somanatha
  • Jatakatilaka written by Sridharacharya
  • Madanakatilaka written by Chandraraja
  • Lokapakara written by Chavundaraya II
  • Mitāksarā (by Vijnanesvara) and Dayabhaga(by Jimutvahana)

Kakatiya Dynasty

Period: 1163 – 1323 AD

Capital: Hanumakonda and Orugallu (Warangal)

• Founder: Prola Raja II is considered the founder of the Kakatiya Dynasty. 
• Extent of rule: They ruled over the parts of present-day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh and parts of eastern Karnataka and southern Odisha.
• Sources: 
  • Anumakonda inscription of Rudradeva (Prataparudra I) is the earliest known record that describes the Kakatiyas as a sovereign power.
  • Mangallu and the Bayyaram inscriptions describe the Kakatiyas as a branch of the Rashtrakuta family.
• Coins: The gold coin during the period of Kakatiyas was called Gadvanam.
• Religion: They followed Hinduism but were tolerant towards Jainism. 

Famous rulers

Prataparudra I (1158 - 1195 AD)

• Kakatiyas declared an end to their status as feudatory chiefs of the Chalukyas during his reign in 1663 AD.
• Palanadu war took place during his period.
• Contribution: He authored the 'Nitisara' in Sanskrit.

Ganapati (1198 - 1262 AD)

• Title: Rayagajekesari
• Contemporary: He adorned the famous poet Tikkana Somayaji. 
• Contribution: 
  • He created the man-made Pakhal Lake in Warangal and issued 'Abhya Sasanam' at Motupalli port.
  • He shifted the capital from Hanumakonda to Warangal.

Rudrama Devi (1262 - 1296)

• She was the first woman ruler of the Kakatiya Dynasty.
• Italian traveller Marcopolo visited during her reign.

Prataparudra II (1296 - 1323)

• His reign faced the Muslim invasions by Allauddin Khilji and Gayasuddin Tughlaq against Kakatiyas, which led to the decline of the Kakatiyas.

Contribution to architecture and literature

Architecture

Rudresvara temple

• Patron: It was built in Anamakonda by Prataparudra I.
• Feature: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, Vishnu and Surya.

Ramappa Temple 

• Patron: It was built by Recherla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya ruler Ganapati Deva.
• Features: 
  • It is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • Its foundation is built with the sandbox technique.
  • Material used: granite and basalt.
  • In July 2021, it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Literature

• Author and their literary work:
  • Jayapa Senani: Geeta Ratnavali, Nritya Ratnavali and Vadya Ratnavali.
  • Tikkana Somayaji: Nirvachanottara Ramayanamu, Vijayasenamu, Kavivaagbandhamu, Krishnasatakamu.

Yadava Dynasty

Period: 1187 - 1317 AD

Capital: Devagiri (Daulatabad

• Founder: Bhillama V established the sovereign and independent kingdom of Seuna Kingdom in 1187 AD.
• Extent of rule: They ruled over the parts of present-day Maharashtra, North Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
• Sources: Deolali inscription mentions the information about Yadava King Seunachandra II.
• Decline: Yadava Kingdom was annexed by the Khalji sultanate in 1317 by killing the last Yadava ruler Simhana III. 

Important rulers

Bhillama (1173 - 1191 AD)

• Title and source:  Mutugi inscription mentions him as "Chakravartin Yadava".
• Military conquests: 
  • He established the independent kingdom of Yadavas. 
  • He fought with the Hoysala king Ballala II to control the Chalukya capital Kalyani and defeated him at Soratur.
• Contemporary: He patronised the scholar Bhaskara.

Simhana II (1200-1246 AD)

• Military conquests: 
  • He launched a military campaign against the Hoysalas and invaded the northern Paramara kingdom.
  • He defeated the Kolhapur Shilahara king Bhoja II.
• Contemporary: He patronised Sarangadeva, Cangadeva and Anantadeva.

Ramchandra (1291-1309 AD)

• He fought against the Vaghelas, Hoysalas, Kakatiyas and Paramaras.
• In 1308 AD, Malik Kafur, under Alauddin Khalji defeated Ramchandra and imprisoned him in Delhi.

                                                                     Contribution

Architecture

Gondeshwar Temple, Sinnar

• Patron: It is an 11th-12th century Hindu temple built by Yadava rulers in the Nashik district of Maharashtra.
• Features: 
  • It features in Bhumija style of Panchayatana plan, with a main shrine dedicated to Shiva.

Literature 

• They were the first major dynasty to use Marathi as an official language.
• Author and their literary work: 
  • Mukundaraya: Vivekasindhu 
  • Hemadri: Chaturanga Chintamani
  • Dnyaneshwar: Dnyaneshwari
  • Mahimabhatta: Lilacharita
  • Sarangapani: sangeetaratnakara
  • Kamalabhava: Santhishwarapurana. 
  • Achanna: Vardhamanapurana 
  • Chaundarasa: Dashakumara Charite
  • Bhaskaracharya: Karnakutuhala and Siddhanta Shiromani 

Hoysala dynasty

Period: 1050 - 1355 AD

Capital: Halebidu and Belur

• Founder: Sala is the founder of the Hoysala dynasty. 
• Extent of rule: They ruled over parts of modern-day Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• Sources: Belur inscription of the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana mentions Sala as the founder of the Hoysala Dynasty. 
• Religion: They were the followers of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Jainism. 
• Division of kingdom: Kingdom →  Nadu → Vishaya → Kampana → Desha

Famous rulers

Vishnuvardhana  (1108–1152 AD)

• Titles: Bitti Deva, Talakadugonda, 
• Religion: He was Jain but later converted to Hindu under the influence of Ramanujacharya.
• Military conquests: 
  • He annexed Gangavadi and parts of Nolambavadi from the Cholas in 1116 
• Contemporary: He patronised mathematician Rajaditya. 
• Contribution: He built the Keerthi Narayana temple at Talakad and the Vijayanarayana temple at Belur.

Veera Ballala II (1173–1220)

• Military conquests: He fought wars with the Yadavas, Kalachuris, Pandyas of Madurai and the Western Chalukya Empire.
• Contemporary: He adorned the Jain poets Janna and Nemichandra and the Brahman poet Rudrabhatta.

Contribution to Architecture and Literature

Architecture

They developed a distinct style of architecture known as the Hoysala School of Art. Some of the features of the architecture are: 

• Multiple shrines: They built multiple shrines around a central pillared hall. 
  • Shrines were made according to the stellate plan.
• Material: Soft soapstone (Chlorite schist) was the main building material. 
• Decoration: Both the interior and exterior walls were intricately carved. Sculptures and jewellery were also decorated. 
• Interconnectedness: All the chambers had Shikharas, which were interconnected by an arrangement of horizontal lines and mouldings. 
• Jagati: The temples were built on an upraised platform known as Jagati, which was about 1 metre high. 
• Zig-zag pattern: The walls and stairs of the temple followed a zigzag pattern.

Kesava Temple at Somanathapura

• Patron: It was built under King Narasimha III in 1268 C.E.
• Location: It is a Vaishnava Hindu temple on the banks of River Kaveri at Somanathapura in Karnataka.
• Features: 
  • The temple is built from soapstone and is known for its lathe-turned pillars, symmetrical architecture and intricate sculptures.
  • It depicts the legends and spiritual stories found in the Ramayana, the Puranas and the Mahabharata.

Chennakesava Temple, Belur

• Patron: It was commissioned by Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 AD.
  • The Vijayanagara Empire repaired it under the sponsorship of Harihara II.
• Location: It is a Hindu temple dedicated to lord Vishnu on the banks of the Yagachi River in the Hassan district of Karnataka.
• Features: 
  • It includes themes from Shaivism, Shaktism, Jainism and Buddhism.
  • It is renowned for the 48 unique pillars inside the main hall.

Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu

• Patron: It was commissioned by Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana.
• Location: It is a Hindu temple dedicated to lord Shiva in Halebidu town of Karnataka.
• Features: 
  • It includes themes from Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Jainism.
  • It is a twin temple carved from soapstone. 
  • The sculptures inside the temple depict scenes from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana.

Literature

• The Hoyasala period saw the growth of Kannada literature, the development of the Champu style and the Saptapadi metre.
• Author and their literary work: 
  • Janna: Yashodharacharite (It is the story of a king intending to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity)
  • Rudrabhatta: Jagannatha Vijaya (It describes the fight of Krishna with the demon Banasura)
  • Harihara: Girijakalyana (It represents the marriage of Shiva and Parvati)
  • Madhvacharya: Rigbhshya
  • Vidyatirtha: Rudraprshnabhashya

Decline: Veera Ballala III, the son of Narasimha III is considered the last ruler of the Hoysala dynasty. He reunified the kingdom, but after his death at the battle of Madurai in 1343, the kingdom disintegrated and was merged with other empires.