Stupas, Types, Features, Significance, Phases

A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred monument containing relics of the Buddha or other sacred objects. It holds religious and symbolic significance in Buddhist architecture. Originating in India before the 5th century BCE, stupas evolved from simple burial mounds into sacred Buddhist monuments, becoming central to Buddhist worship and practice.

The term stupa is mentioned in Rigveda (estuka), Atharvaveda, and other texts, referring to structures raised on the ground. The Pali term “thupa” signifies a conical heap or shrine containing a relic.

Stupas Origin, Evolution

The stupa was originally a funerary mound in ancient India, but it gradually evolved into a religious monument associated with the Buddha and his teachings. The earliest stupas were simple hemispherical mounds of earth or brick, but later became more elaborate and were decorated with carvings, reliefs, and sculptures.

• Mauryan Empire: Stupas gained prominence under Emperor Ashoka (268–232 BCE), who is credited with building thousands of stupas to propagate Buddhism.
  • Before Ashoka’s reign, eight stupas were built to enshrine the cremated remains of the Buddha at significant locations tied to his life. 
  • Ashoka redistributed these relics into numerous stupas across his empire, symbolising spiritual energy and enlightenment.
• Subsequently, stupas also honoured Buddhist arhats (saints), bodhisattvas (enlightened beings), and local deities. 

Over time, their construction extended beyond relics to include symbolic worship, reflecting the shift from non-iconic to iconic practices in Buddhism, particularly with the emergence of the Mahayana sect.

Stupas Features 

The stupa's basic architectural form resembles an inverted bowl. The flattened top of the dome, called the harmika, symbolises the abode of the gods. At its core, the stupa contains relics stored in gold or silver caskets. A central wooden rod, or yasti, rises from the middle of the structure and is adorned with three symbolic umbrella-like discs representing respect, veneration, and generosity. The stupa’s design is rich in symbolism and adheres to specific structural elements, including:

• Medhi: The square platform at the base, often surrounded by a vedika(boundary wall).
• Anda: The hemispherical dome that encloses a casket containing relics or symbols.
• Harmika: A square railing atop the dome, symbolising a sacred enclosure.
• Yasti: The central spire or mast, representing the axis mundi (cosmic axis).
• Chhatras: A series of parasols above the yasti, symbolising protection and the Buddha's teachings.
• Toranas: Ornate gateways aligned with the cardinal directions, each associated with significant events in Buddha’s life:
  • East: Birth of the Buddha
  • South: Enlightenment
  • West: First sermon
  • North: Nirvana
• The circumambulatory path (pradakshina patha) encircling the medhi allows devotees to perform ritualistic walkarounds as an act of reverence.
• Symbolism of the Stupa: 

• Relic sites: Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at various locations:
  • Rajagriha, Vaishali, Vethadipa, and Pava in Bihar.
  • Kapilavastu, Allakappa, and Ramagrama in Nepal.
  • Kushinagar and Pippalvina in Uttar Pradesh.
• Regional styles of stupa architecture: Different regions of India developed their styles over time. For example, the stupas at Sanchi are known for their elaborate carvings and reliefs. 
  • In contrast, the stupas at Amaravati are known for their intricate sculptures. 
  • The stupas in Ladakh and Tibet are often built in a distinctive Tibetan style, with a white dome and colourful banners.

Stupas Types

Stupas serve diverse purposes based on their design, form, and function. They are broadly categorised based on the purpose they fulfil and their symbolic significance in Buddhist theology.

Stupa Architectural Phases 

Stupa architecture evolved through distinct phases, reflecting the changing religious, cultural, and architectural trends in Buddhist history. Following arе thе typical phasеs of stupa architеcturе:

Mauryan Period 

During the Mauryan period (322 BCE-185 BCE), stupa architecture underwent significant development, and stupas became more elaborate and decorative. King Ashoka played a crucial role in propagating Buddhism and utilising stupa architecture to spread Buddhist teachings and imperial authority.

• The early Mauryan stupas: They were relatively simple hemispherical mounds of earth or brick, with the oldest known example being the Piprahwa stupa in Uttar Pradesh, dating back to the 4th century BCE.
  • The Sanchi Stupa stands as the most renowned of the Ashokan stupas.
• The development of stone stupas: During this period, builders began using stone to construct stupas, as seen in the Sanchi Stupa which was built in several phases, with the earliest dating back to the 3rd century BCE.
  • The Mauryan stupas were decorated with elaborate carvings, reliefs, and sculptures depicting scenes from the Buddha's life and other religious and secular motifs. 
• Regional variations: The stupa at Sanchi is known for its intricate decoration and stone construction, while the stupa at Bharhut is known for its early Buddhist reliefs and carvings.
• Transition: Initially, the Buddha was symbolically depicted through footprints, stupas, lotus thrones, and chakras, but gradually the narrative expanded to include events from the Buddha's life, as seen in the railings and torans of the stupas.

Post-Mauryan period 

The Post-Mauryan period in India (around 200 BCE - 300 CE) saw the continuation and further evolution of stupa architecture. During this period, various dynasties and kingdoms emerged, each with its distinct style and approach to stupa construction. 

• Satavahanas Era: They built several important stupas, including the Nagarjunakonda Stupa and Amaravati Stupa in present-day Andhra Pradesh. 
• Kushan Empire: They built the Kanishka Stupa in present-day Afghanistan. This stupa is known for its large size and elaborate decoration, which includes thousands of carved stone panels and sculptures.

The Gupta period

During this period, stupa architecture continued to evolve and reached new heights of refinement and sophistication. 

• Emergence of new styles: During this period, new styles of stupa architecture emerged, with more elaborate decoration and greater attention to detail. 
  • The Dhamekh Stupa in Sarnath with intricate carvings depicting Buddhist themes and motifs.
• Decorative elements: They were often decorated with ornate elements such as lotus petals, garlands, and various mythical creatures such as yakshas, kinnaras, and Gandharvas. 
  • These decorative elements were often arranged in a symmetrical pattern, creating a sense of balance and harmony.
• Chaukhandi Stupa (Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh): It was constructed during the Gupta empire, and commemorates the Buddha’s encounter with five ascetics (his initial disciples). 
  • It features a rectangular shape, ascending steps, and Buddha sculptures. An octagonal addition was made in 1588 CE during the Mughal empire.
• Construction materials: Bricks and stone, with the outer surface covered in plaster or stucco. 

Major Stupas

Major Stupas serve as places of meditation and as repositories for sacred relics of the Buddha or other Buddhist saints. Major Indian stupas stand as monumental representations of Buddhist philosophy, history, and architectural brilliance. Following are some of the major stupas in India:

Stupas Significance

Stupas hold spiritual and architectural significance in Buddhism. After Buddha's death, his relical structures transcend mere burial mounds, symbolising the realisation of higher transcendental truths.

• The toranas (gateways) of stupas often depict Jataka tales, teaching lessons on karma, samsara, and dharma.
• The anda (hemispherical dome) represents latent creative power and the infinite dome of heaven, symbolizing the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
• The harmika atop the anda signifies nirvana, the ultimate state beyond life and death.
• The parasol symbolizes enlightenment and royal dignity, while the three chattra layers at Sanchi represent the Three Jewels: Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha.
• The vedikas demarcate the sacred space, separating it from the secular world, and enhancing the spiritual sanctity of the site. Stupas are thus significant symbols of Buddhist philosophy and devotion. 

Stupas UPSC PYQs

Question 1: Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives, successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (UPSC Mains 2016)

Question 2: With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:(UPSC Prelims 2023)

1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition 

How many of the statements given above are correct?

1. Only one
2. Only two
3. All three
4. None

Answer: (b)

Question 3:  Which one of the following statements is correct? (UPSC Prelims 2021)

1. Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora River.
2. Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of the Chambal River.
3. Pandu-Lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada River.
4. Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari River.

Answer: (a)

Stupas FAQs 

Q1. What is a stupa?

Ans. A stupa refers to a domed mound-like structure containing relics of Buddha or eminent monks that dot Buddhist architectural landscapes across Asian countries from Nepal, and India to Indonesia.

Q2. What are the 4 types of stupas?
Ans. The four types of stupas are categorized based on their purpose: Relic Stupas, Object Stupas, Commemorative Stupas, Symbolic Stupas.

Q3. Why were stupas built?
Ans. Stupas were built as sacred monuments to preserve relics of Buddha and his disciples, commemorate significant events in Buddhist history, and serve as places of meditation and devotion for followers.

Q4. Which is the oldest stupa in India?
Ans. The Sanchi Stupa, originally commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE in Madhya Pradesh, is considered the oldest and most significant surviving stupa. 

Q5. What are the 9 stupas built after the death of Buddha?
Ans. The 9 stupas include Rajgir (Magadha), Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar (where Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana), Vethapida and the urn (Drona’s stupa).