Role of Working Class in Indian National Movement

The emergence of modern workers in India during the latter half of the nineteenth century was closely tied to the slow development of modern industry and the establishment of essential utilities like railways, the post, and the telegraph network. Before the concept of the Indian 'people' took hold, the idea of an Indian working class did not fully exist.

As the Indian national movement gained momentum and the process of shaping the Indian 'nation-in-the-making' progressed, disparate groups of workers from different regions began to organise and develop a collective, self-aware, all-India class. The growth of the Indian working class became inseparable from the broader context of the nation's striving for independence.

Reasons for the Rise of the Working Class in India

In the modern sense, the urban working class emerged in India as a consequence of colonial rule. There are several reasons responsible for the same, such as:

The Political Economy of Colonial Administration

• Spread of Industrial Revolution: The urban working class emerged as a result of the Industrial Revolution, which started in Europe in the 18th century and spread to other parts of the world. The Industrial Revolution led to the development of capitalism and the use of machinery in large-scale industries. 
• Resource exploitation: The imperialist rulers exploited natural resources and impoverished a large section of the Indian population. 
• Destruction of Village System: The displacement of rural artisans and craftsmen occurred due to the destruction of traditional cottage and village industries, leading to migration to urban areas with impoverished people seeking employment in distant areas with industries, mining, or plantations. The self-sufficient village community system was destroyed.

Industrialization

• Rise of textile industries: The early industrialisation in India began with the establishment of jute and textile factories in Calcutta and Bombay in the 1850s, primarily for exporting goods to Britain. Factories were later set up in Madras, and tea plantations emerged in Assam.
• The emergence of the working class: The industrial working class emerged by 1890, with many people employed in factories, mines, cotton and jute mills, and coal mines.
• Rise of other industries: The growth of plantations, coal mining, railways, and mill industries in the 19th century gave rise to the modern working class. 

Urbanisation

• The emergence of coastal cities: Urbanisation in India entered a new phase with the spread of British power, leading to the growth of cities in coastal areas and various parts of the country.
• Integration with the British economic system: These urban centres were later integrated into the British economic system and included administrative and business elites, professional groups, educated white-collar workers, and the working class.
• The working class primarily consisted of factory workers and unskilled manual labourers engaged in different service occupations. There was the development of new social and political institutions and infrastructure development. 

Condition of the Working Class under the British Administration

The working and living conditions of the workers were deplorable with several characteristics: 

• Harsh working conditions: Workers endured long hours of work, low wages, unhygienic working conditions, and the employment of young children.
• Discrimination Against women workers was prevalent, and they faced harsh conditions both at work and at home.
• The situation was particularly dire for plantation labourers who were confined and legally bound to work under the control of planters.
• Factory Acts of 1881 and 1891: It only provided limited protection to children and women, and enforcement was weak.
• The Factory Act of 1911: Itrestricted the working hours of adult males to 12 hours, and the 1922 amendment further reduced it to 11 hours.
• Wage levels were generally low, with industrial wages not significantly higher than agricultural wages.

Different Phases of the Working Class Movement in India

The working class movement in India has еvolvеd through distinct phasеs, rеsponding to changing socio-еconomic contеxts and thе pursuit of fair wagеs, bеttеr conditions, and еquitablе rights. Rеflеcting rеsiliеncе and dеtеrmination, it еmеrgеd from laboring massеs' strugglеs for a more just and inclusivе sociеty.

Early Phase

• Earlier attempts to improve the economic conditions of workers were characterised by philanthropic efforts that were limited, sporadic and focused on specific local grievances. These include: 
  • In 1870, Sasipada Banerjea initiated a workingmen's club and established the newspaper Bharat Shramjeevi.
  • In 1878, Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee attempted to pass a bill in the Bombay Legislative Council aimed at providing better working conditions for labourers.
  • In 1880, Narayan Meghajee Lokhande launched the newspaper Deenbandhu and established the Bombay Mill and Millhands Association (1890).
  • In 1899, the first strike by the Great Indian Peninsular Railways occurred, gaining widespread support. Tilak's Kesari and Mahratta newspapers had been advocating for the strike for several months.
• Response from nationalists: Efforts of the early nationalists were limited to Industrial development over the plight of the workers. They opposed legislative interventions regarding improving working conditions as they saw it as interference with Indian industries and a threat to British cotton manufacturers.
• Things changed during the Swadeshi upsurge:
  • Workers actively engaged in broader political issues, with strikes being orchestrated by individuals such as Ashwini Coomar Banerjee, Prabhat Kumar Roy Chaudhuri, Premtosh Bose, and Apurba Kumar Ghosh. These strikes took place in government presses, railways, and the jute industry.
  • Efforts were made to establish trade unions, but they faced limited success.
• In 1911, the National Social Service League in Bombay was established by N. M. Joshi.

From 1918 to 1926

• The First World War led to a rise in the prices of necessary goods without a significant increase in wages. This caused serious economic distress. At the same time, the formation of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) in 1919 led to the politicisation of labour and the formation of labour organisations.
• Strikes and protests increased from 1918 to 1922, leading to the formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), with the Madras Labour Union (led by BP Wadia) being considered the first trade union in India.
• In 1920, due to the endeavours of Mahatma Gandhi, the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association (Majoor Mahajan Sabha), under the leadership of Ansuyaben Sarabhai, came into existence.
• In 1922, notable organisations like the Central Labour Board in Bombay, the Bengal Trade Union Federation, and the All India Railway Men's Federation (AIRF) were established.
• In 1923, the First-Ever May Day (Labour Day) in India was launched by the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan in Madras on 1 May 1923.
• TheKhilafat Movement, anti-Rowlatt agitations, and the Non-cooperation Movementinfluenced workers and their involvement in strikes and demonstrations.
• Congress's resolutions supported labour unions and condemned the exploitation of workers by foreign companies; however, they did not address exploitation by Indian industrialists.
• The Congress' interest in labour declined after the withdrawal of the Non-cooperation Movement.
• Gandhi's Approach to Capital-Labour Relations: Gandhi had different ideas about capital-labour relations, emphasising amicable settlement, social and cultural improvements, and discouraging strikes and class conflict.
• Trade Union Act 1926:
  • Trade unions were acknowledged as lawful organisations.
  • Guidelines were established for the registration and oversight of trade union operations.
  • Trade unions received legal protection for legitimate activities, with some political limitations imposed.

From 1927 to 1937

• The Congress' inconsistent involvement in economic struggles created space for other ideologies to emerge. In the late 1920s, communist leaders began organising and mobilising workers, gaining influence in labour unions.
• The rise of Communal influence reflected in the Girni Kamgar Union (Established by SA Dange) led to a six-month-long strike in Bombay Textile Mills in 1928. The government responded with legislative measures - 
  • The Public Safety Ordinance (1929) and the Trade Disputes Act (TDA), 1929, were enacted.
• In March 1929, the government apprehended 31 labour leaders, and they subsequently trialled them under the Meerut Conspiracy Case.
  • Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A. Dange, Joglekar, Philip Spratt, Ben Bradley, Shaukat Usmani, and several others were convicted.
• The trial received extensive international attention but had a detrimental impact on the working-class movement, leading to its weakening.
• Workers actively participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. However, the working-class movement experienced a decline after 1931 due to a split within the movement.
• In 1931, the corporatist faction led by N.M. Joshi separated from the AITUC and formed the All India Trade Union Federation. Its first president was VV Giri. 
• In 1931, another split-up in AITUC took place in its Calcutta Session, in which extreme left-wing broke away and formed the Red Trade Union Congress (RTUC). In 1934 it remerged with AITUC.
• The Congress formed a labour Committee in 1936 to assist workers, and its manifesto supported union formation.

From 1937 to 1947

• The formation of Congress ministries in 1937 led to increased working-class activities. The pro-labour attitude of some Congress leaders and increased civil liberties provided a favourable environment for the labour movement during the Congress ministries.
• The number of trade unions and their membership significantly increased during this period. The National Federation of Trade Unions merged with the AITUC in 1938.
• The Congress ministry in Bombay passed the Bombay Industrial Disputes Act in 1939 to restrict labour militancy. During World War II, the Congress ministries resigned, and anti-war strikes and demonstrations took place in Bombay.
• In 1940, the National Trade Union Federation (NTUF) merged with the AITUC in Nagpur, and a united body of trade unions was formed.
• During the Second World War, the working class expressed opposition to the war, but when Russia became involved in 1941, the Communists shifted their stance and began supporting it.As a result, the AITUC underwent another split in 1941, leading to the formation of the Indian Federation of Labour (IFL) under the leadership of M.N. Roy. 

The working class faced an array of economic grievances during the war, and post-war demobilisation compounded their challenges. High prices, scarcity of essential goods, and a decline in real wages further strained their situation. Moreover, the prevailing atmosphere was filled with anticipation as India looked forward to its impending freedom. The entire Indian population saw independence as a potential resolution to their sufferings, and the working class, like others, ardently fought for the hope that freedom would bring about a just and rightful change in their circumstances.