Alexander Cunningham, Father of Indian Archaeology, ASI

Alexander Cunningham was the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. He played a pioneering role in systematically documenting India’s ancient monuments, inscriptions, coins and archaeological sites, helping reconstruct India’s early history.

His major findings included the identification and study of Buddhist sites such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Bharhut, along with extensive work on inscriptions, coins and ancient geographical locations. However, his work faced criticism for its colonial perspective, emphasis on Buddhist and classical sites over some other traditions, and occasional reliance on textual accounts to identify archaeological locations.

Alexander Cunningham Father of Indian Archaeology

Alexander Cunningham (1814–1893) was a British military engineer, archaeologist and the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He initially served in the Bengal Engineers and developed a strong interest in India’s ancient monuments, inscriptions and coins. 

• Appointment to ASI: He was appointed as the first Archaeological Surveyor to the Government of India in 1861, and the ASI was revived in 1870 with Cunningham as its Director-General.
• Role: Cunningham conducted extensive surveys across North and Central India, using archaeological remains, inscriptions, coins, and the accounts of Chinese pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang to identify ancient sites.
• Alexander Cunningham Books: The Ancient Geography of India, The Bhilsa Topes, The Stupa of Bharhut and others.

Alexander Cunningham and ASI

Cunningham played a foundational role in the establishment and development of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He had proposed a systematic archaeological survey of India earlier, and he was appointed the first Archaeological Surveyor under the Government of India.

• Establishment: Cunningham’s appointment in 1861 marked the beginning of the organised archaeological survey under the colonial government.
• Revival of ASI: After the survey was discontinued in 1865, it was revived in 1870–71, with Cunningham appointed as its first Director-General.
• Archaeological Surveys: He extensively surveyed North India, documenting monuments, inscriptions, coins and ancient settlements.
• Buddhist Sites: He used the accounts of Faxian and Xuanzang to identify several ancient Buddhist sites and places mentioned in historical texts.

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Alexander Cunningham Contribution to Indian Archaeology

Cunningham laid the foundation of scientific archaeology in India. As the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), he systematically surveyed ancient sites, identified Buddhist remains, studied inscriptions and coins, and documented India’s archaeological heritage.

Alexander Cunningham and Harappa

Alexander visited Harappa three times—in 1853, 1856 and 1872–73. During his third visit, he conducted a small trial excavation and documented his report included an early site plan of Harappa, with the principal areas designated as A–B, C, D and E.

• Site plan: Cunningham prepared one of the earliest plans of Harappa and recorded its extensive mound system.
• Stone tools: His excavation recovered several stone implements, apparently used for scraping wood or leather.
• Pottery: He recorded numerous examples of ancient pottery and illustrated some of them in his report.
• Harappan seal: He documented a black stone seal depicting a unicorn-like bull with six unknown signs—now recognised as an important example of the Indus script.
  • He noted that Harappa had yielded thousands of coins belonging to the Indo-Scythians and their successors.

Alexander Cunningham and Buddhist Sites

Alexander made a major contribution to the archaeological study of Buddhist sites in India. Influenced by the accounts of Chinese pilgrims, he used historical texts, inscriptions, monuments, and field surveys to locate ancient Buddhist centres and reconstruct their historical geography.

• Sanchi: Cunningham investigated the Sanchi stupas and documented their architectural and sculptural remains. In 1851, he examined the monuments and recovered important relics associated with Sariputta and Mahamoggallana, two principal disciples of the Buddha.
• Sarnath: Cunningham’s early archaeological activities included work at Sarnath, the site associated with the Buddha’s first sermon. His investigations helped document the Dhamekh Stupa and surrounding monastic remains, contributing to the identification of ancient Buddhist structures.
• Bodh Gaya: Cunningham repeatedly investigated Bodh Gaya; at the Mahabodhi complex revealed evidence of an earlier shrine dating to the 3rd century BCE, associated with the sacred Bodhi tree and the so-called Diamond Throne.
• Bharhut: Cunningham excavated the Bharhut Stupa in 1873–74, documenting its stone railings, Jataka scenes and Brahmi inscriptions.