Articles on 24 December 2024

What’s in today’s article?

• Overview
• What are Critical Minerals?
• China’s Dominance in Critical Minerals
• China's Export Strategy
• India's Dependency on China
• Why India Relies on Imports?
• Strategic Way Forward
• Conclusion

Overview

• In 2023, the Ministry of Mines identified 30 critical minerals essential for India's economic development and national security.
• The report highlighted a complete import dependency for 10 critical minerals but fell short of addressing India's reliance on China—a dominant player in the global critical minerals ecosystem.
• This reliance raises strategic vulnerabilities and the need for alternative strategies.

What are Critical Minerals?

• Critical minerals are raw materials essential for economic and national security, often used in high-tech industries and renewable energy technologies.
• They are typically rare, difficult to mine and substitute, and often vulnerable to supply chain disruptions due to limited global production and geopolitical factors.
• The growing demand for these minerals, driven by technological advancements and the global transition to green energy, underscores their critical importance.
• Securing a stable supply of critical minerals is thus a strategic priority for many countries to ensure economic stability and technological progress.

China’s Dominance in Critical Minerals

• Vast Resources: China has discovered 173 types of minerals, including:
  • 13 energy minerals
  • 59 metallic minerals
  • 95 non-metallic minerals
• Strategic Investments: With $19.4 billion invested in exploration in 2023, China discovered 132 new mineral deposits, including 34 large ones.
• Processing Capabilities: Dominates processing and refining:
  • Rare earths: 87%
  • Lithium: 58%
  • Silicon: 68%
• Global Investments: Strategic stakes in overseas mining projects amplify its control over supply chains.

China's Export Strategy

• China strategically controls critical mineral exports, particularly targeting those crucial for semiconductors, batteries, and high-tech manufacturing. Key examples include:
  • 2010 Rare Earth Embargo: Against Japan
  • Restrictions on Gallium, Germanium, and Antimony: Recent targeted actions
  • Ban on Rare Earth Technologies (2023): To protect domestic interests
• China avoids actions that might:
  • Disrupt its export-dependent industries
  • Undermine its reliance on Western-imported raw materials

India's Dependency on China

• India’s import data (2019-2024) reveals high dependency on Chinese supplies for six critical minerals:
  • Bismuth (85.6%): Vital for pharmaceuticals and chemicals
  • Lithium (82%): Core to EV batteries and energy storage
  • Silicon (76%): Crucial for semiconductors and solar panels
  • Titanium (50.6%): Key for aerospace and defense
  • Tellurium (48.8%): Used in solar and thermoelectric devices
  • Graphite (42.4%): Indispensable for EV batteries and steel production
• China's dominant global production shares in these minerals underscore India's supply chain vulnerabilities.

Why India Relies on Imports?

• Despite abundant mineral resources, structural challenges hinder India’s mining and processing ecosystem:
• Technological Barriers:
  • Limited ability to extract minerals like lithium from clay deposits in Jammu & Kashmir, despite having 5.9 million tonnes of resources.
• Investment Gaps:
  • High-risk investments in exploration deter private sector participation.
• Policy Shortcomings:
  • Lack of incentives and advanced mining technologies limit domestic production capabilities.

Strategic Way Forward

• Securing Overseas Assets:
  • The government established KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Limited) to acquire overseas mineral resources.
• International Collaborations:
  • Partnerships through the Minerals Security Partnership and Critical Raw Materials Club aim to diversify supply sources.
• Research and Development:
  • Institutions like the Geological Survey of India and CSIR are advancing technologies for exploration and processing.
• Promoting Recycling:
  • Circular economy initiatives and production-linked incentives focus on recycling critical minerals to reduce dependency.
• Policy Reforms:
  • Introducing incentives to attract private investment and updating mining regulations to encourage domestic exploration.

Conclusion

• India’s transition from dependence on China requires sustained investment, technological advancements, and global partnerships.
• While government initiatives show promise, long-term commitment and proactive policies will be critical for securing a self-reliant future in critical minerals.

Q1. What is an Ore in Mining?

Ore is natural rock or sediment that contains one or more valuable minerals concentrated above background levels, typically containing metals that can be mined, treated and sold at a profit. The grade of ore refers to the concentration of the desired material it contains.

Q2. What do you mean by rare earth elements?

The rare earth elements are a set of seventeen metallic elements. These include the fifteen lanthanides on the periodic table plus scandium and yttrium. Rare earth elements are an essential part of many high-tech devices.

News: India’s reliance on China for critical minerals

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• Trends in Forest and Tree Cover Growth
• Forests within forest
• Forest Balance Sheet: Insights from ISFR-2023
• Implications of Forest Cover Trends

Why in News?

The 18th biennial State of Forest Report (ISFR-2023) highlights a marginal gain of 156 sq km in forest cover and a significant increase of 1,289 sq km in tree cover since 2021. 

For the first time, India’s green cover has surpassed the 25% threshold, with 8,27,357 sq km (25.17%) of the country under forest (21.76%) and tree (3.41%) cover. Dense forests constitute 4,10,175 sq km of the total.

Trends in Forest and Tree Cover Growth

• Calculation
  • Since 2001, tree patches smaller than 1 hectare have been measured separately as tree cover. 
• Trend
  • The latest ISFR-2023 report shows the sharpest growth in tree cover, rising from 2.91% in 2021 to 3.41% in 2023, marking a 0.5 percentage point increase in two years. 
  • In contrast, forest cover growth has slowed, increasing by only 0.05 percentage points since 2021. 
• Implication
  • This aligns with the diminishing growth trend since forest cover surpassed the 20% threshold in the early 2000s. 
  • Between 2003 and 2013, forest cover grew by 0.61 percentage points (from 20.62% to 21.23%).
  • On the other hand, the next decade saw only a 0.53 percentage point increase to 21.76%.

Forests within forest

• Classification of Forest Types in India
  • In India, tree patches measuring 1 hectare or more with a minimum canopy cover of 10% are classified as forests, irrespective of land use or ownership. 
  • Forests are categorized based on canopy density:
    • Very Dense Forests (VDF): Canopy density ≥ 70% (classified since 2003).
    • Dense Forests: Canopy density ≥ 40%.
    • Open Forests (OF): Canopy density between 10-40%.
    • Non-Forest (NF): Areas with < 10% canopy density, including shrubs.
• Dynamic Changes in Forest Density
  • Forests undergo transitions across density categories due to factors like climate and biotic pressure. For example:
    • A VDF may thin to a Moderately Dense Forest (MDF).
    • An OF may improve to an MDF.
    • Forests may degrade to NF or shrub areas, indicating deforestation.
• Limitations of Aggregated Data
  • While aggregated data reflects the quantum of different forest types, it fails to capture the dynamic transformation of forests, where natural forests degrade, disappear, or are replaced by plantations. 
  • Plantations often grow faster but do not replicate the ecological richness of natural forests.
• Tracking Forest Change
  • Since 2003, ISFR reports include a “change matrix”, detailing forest transitions across categories. 
  • This data highlights broad trends over two decades, reflecting the dynamic nature of forest ecosystems.

Forest Balance Sheet: Insights from ISFR-2023

• Dense Forest Losses (2003-2023)
  • India has lost 24,651 sq km (6.3%) of its dense forests since 2003, equivalent to nearly half the size of Punjab. 
  • Key trends:
    • 2021-2023: 3,913 sq km lost (larger than Goa).
    • 2013-2023: 17,500 sq km lost.
    • 2003-2013: 7,151 sq km lost.
• Plantation Gains Offset Dense Forest Losses
  • Rapid transformation of 15,530 sq km of non-forested or scantly forested land to dense forests over the past two decades has offset these losses. 
  • Experts suggest these gains are predominantly plantations, as natural forests do not grow this quickly.
    • 2021-2023: 1,420 sq km of plantations became dense forests.
• Management and Density Improvements
  • Better management practices have allowed Open Forests (OFs) to improve into Moderately Dense Forests (MDFs) over the last decade. 
  • Combined with plantation gains, this has kept the dense forest cover largely stable.
  • The “change matrix” records a net increase of 1,370 sq km of dense forest between 2003-2023.
  • 716 sq km of gains were recorded in the 2021-2023 cycle alone.
• Data Revisions and Paper Gains
  • India’s dense forest cover officially grew by 21,601 sq km (6%) between 2003-2023. 
  • However, this figure includes 20,232 sq km of revisions made in previous ISFR reports (2005, 2009, 2015, and 2021), raising questions about the accuracy of these gains.
• Key Observation
  • While plantations and management practices stabilize dense forest cover on paper, the ongoing disappearance of natural dense forests highlights the need for improved conservation measures.

Implications of Forest Cover Trends

• Criticism of Plantation-Based Forest Growth
  • The apparent growth in forest cover through the replacement of natural dense forests with plantations has drawn criticism from experts. 
  • Key issues include:
    • Uniformity and Vulnerability: Plantations typically consist of trees of the same age and species, making them susceptible to fire, pests, and epidemics.
    • Barrier to Natural Regeneration: Plantations hinder the regrowth of biodiverse natural forests, which provide a broader range of ecological benefits.
• Ecological Superiority of Natural Forests
  • Natural forests outperform plantations in several ways:
    • Biodiversity: Natural forests support more species and complex ecosystems.
    • Carbon Stock: They store significantly more carbon, both in trees and soil, compared to plantations.
• Climate Challenges of Plantation Forests
  • Rapid Growth Assumption: In 2018, the UNFCCC flagged India’s assumption that plantations reach the carbon stock level of natural forests in just eight years, which is unrealistic.
  • Short-Term Gains, Long-Term Risks: Plantations grow quickly and are promoted to meet carbon targets. However, they are often harvested prematurely, undermining long-term climate goals.
• Conclusion
  • While plantations may stabilize forest cover on paper and provide short-term carbon benefits, they fail to replicate the ecological and climate advantages of old natural forests, emphasizing the need for better conservation strategies.

Q.1. Why is the growth in India’s green cover concerning despite the increase?

The rise in green cover largely comes from plantations, which lack the biodiversity and carbon-storing capacity of natural forests. This trend poses ecological risks and undermines long-term climate goals.

Q.2. What are the ecological disadvantages of plantations replacing natural forests?

Plantations are often uniform, vulnerable to pests and fires, and hinder natural forest regeneration. They store less carbon than natural forests and fail to support diverse ecosystems.

News: Why growth of India’s overall green cover is not all good news | Times of India

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• Overview of the No-Detention Policy
• Reasons for Scrapping the No-Detention Policy
• Key Provisions of the New Policy
• Reactions Towards the New Policy
• Recommendations to Implement the New Policy
• Conclusion

Why in News?

• The Indian government has abolished the no-detention policy for Classes 5 and 8 across schools under its jurisdiction.
• This includes over 3,000 central schools, including Kendriya Vidyalayas, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, Sainik Schools, and Eklavya Model Residential Schools (under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs).
• This significant policy change aims to improve learning outcomes and accountability while balancing the rights of students with academic standards.

Overview of the No-Detention Policy:

• Adopted the change: 18 states and UTs, including Delhi, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.
• Pending decision: Haryana and Puducherry.
• Continuing No-detention policy: Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, etc.

Reasons for Scrapping the No-Detention Policy:

• Criticism of academic dilution:
  • Experts argued that the policy led to a decline in academic standards and student accountability.
  • It was believed to have transformed schools into mid-day meal hubs rather than centers of learning.
• State and expert advocacy:
  • By 2016, most states supported scrapping the policy during a Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) meeting.
  • The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasised improving learning outcomes while retaining educational access.
• Balancing accountability with equity: The policy change aims to instill seriousness in studies while providing remedial measures for underperforming students.

Key Provisions of the New Policy:

• Promotion and re-examination:
  • Students failing the annual exams in Classes 5 or 8 will receive remedial instruction and an opportunity for a re-examination within two months.
  • Failure in the re-examination may lead to detention.
• Competency-based assessments: Examinations will focus on holistic development rather than rote memorisation or procedural skills.
• Support for struggling students: Teachers and school heads will provide targeted support, identify learning gaps, and closely monitor students' progress.
• Safeguards for student rights:
  • No child can be expelled before completing Class 8.
  • Detailed records of detained students and their progress will be maintained.

Reactions Towards the New Policy:

• Supporters:
  • Educators: Applaud the move as a step toward restoring academic rigor and preparing students for real-world challenges.
  • Parents: See the policy as a means to encourage better academic preparation and outcomes.
• Critics:
  • Educationists argue that detentions may increase dropout rates and undermine the RTE's goal of inclusive education.
  • They highlight the need for integrating Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) with the policy.

Recommendations to Implement the New Policy:

• Preventive measures:
  • Early identification of at-risk students to reduce failures.
  • Focus on addressing learning gaps throughout the academic year.
• Implementation oversight: School heads to monitor progress and ensure adequate support for detained students.
• Holistic view: Policies should integrate CCE to track progress and avoid stigma associated with failure.

Conclusion:

• The abolition of the no-detention policy marks a shift in India’s educational approach, aiming to balance accountability with inclusivity.
• While it seeks to improve learning outcomes, its success will depend on careful implementation and continued support for underperforming students.

Q.1. What is the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) for School Education?

The NCF enables the federal structure of school education, with States ultimately setting their State or regional curricula, easily incorporating local elements. The NCF incorporates and enables the major paradigm shifts as recommended by the NEP 2020, including holistic and multidisciplinary education.

Q.2. What is the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)?

The CABE is a committee of the Government of India that advises the Ministry of Education on education and educational policy. It is the oldest and most important advisory body of the Government of India in education.

News: Government ends no-detention policy in KVs and JNVs, five years after diluting RTE Act | HT | ToI

What’s in today’s article?

• Why in News?
• Extradition treaty between India and Bangladesh
• Extradition Request by Bangladesh
• Can Hasina be extradited by Bangladesh?

Why in News?

Bangladesh has formally requested India to extradite former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, who fled to India on August 5 following massive protests that ended her 16-year rule.

Dhaka sent a diplomatic note to New Delhi, citing the need for Hasina to face judicial processes for alleged crimes against humanity and genocide. The International Crimes Tribunal (ICT) in Dhaka has issued arrest warrants against Hasina and several of her former ministers and officials.

Extradition treaty between India and Bangladesh

• Treaty signed in 2013
  • It was signed to address fugitives operating across borders in both countries.
    • It was established due to concerns over Indian insurgents, particularly from the North East, hiding in Bangladesh, and Bangladeshi militants.
    • Many Bangladeshi militants such as those from Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), sought refuge in Indian states like West Bengal and Assam.
  • It provides the legal framework for extradition but does not mandate compliance in all cases.
• Key provisions of the treaty
  • The extradition treaty between India and Bangladesh mandates that both countries extradite individuals who: 
    • have been charged with, found guilty of, or 
    • are wanted for committing an extraditable offence by a court in the requesting country. 
  • An extraditable offence, as defined by the treaty, is one that carries a minimum punishment of one year imprisonment, including financial crimes. 
  • For an offence to be considered extraditable, the principle of dual criminality must apply, meaning the offence must be punishable in both countries. 
  • The treaty also allows for extradition in cases involving attempts to commit, aiding, abetting, inciting, or participating as an accomplice in an extraditable offence.
• Provisions for Refusal
  • Extradition may be refused if the offence is of a “political nature.”
  • Some crimes, such as murder, enforced disappearance, and torture, are excluded from being categorized as political offences under the treaty.
  • Grounds for refusal also include accusations not made “in good faith in the interests of justice” or military offences not considered general criminal law violations.
• Amendment in 2016 to Simplify Extradition Process 
  • Requirement to provide evidence of the offence was removed; only an arrest warrant from a competent court is now required.
  • Sheikh Hasina faces multiple arrest warrants issued in Bangladesh, making her case eligible under the amended treaty.

Extradition Request by Bangladesh

• About the news
  • Bangladesh has sent a diplomatic note asking New Delhi to send back its former PM Sheikh Hasina.
• India’s Response and Treaty Provisions
  • Ministry of External Affairs confirmed receiving the request but has not yet commented on the matter.
  • Indian officials have stated they will examine the legal grounds before making a decision.
• Strained Bilateral Relations
  • Hasina’s presence in India and her public statements have strained relations between the two countries.
    • In her public address from India, Hasina accused the interim government of genocide and persecution of minorities, including Hindus, Buddhists, and Christians.
    • She alleged that during the protests, minority places of worship were attacked, and leaders of minority communities were persecuted.
    • Hasina called for justice, demanding investigations into the killings and acts of violence.
  • Bangladesh’s interim government, led by Chief Advisor Prof Muhammad Yunus, has expressed concerns over Hasina’s statements made from India, which they believe create tension.
  • Yunus has urged India to help “clear the clouds” over the bilateral relationship.
• Impact on Regional Dynamics
  • The extradition request and the political developments surrounding Hasina’s asylum in India have the potential to influence India-Bangladesh relations significantly, requiring deft diplomatic handling by both nations.

Can Hasina be extradited by Bangladesh?

• India can refuse extradition, citing lack of “good faith” or justice-related concerns, though this could further strain bilateral ties.
  • Article 8 lists out multiple grounds for refusal including cases in which: 
    • an accusation has not been made in good faith in the interests of justice or 
    • in case of military offences which are not an offence under the general criminal law.
• Experts highlight that the decision to extradite Hasina is ultimately political rather than legal.
• But this has the potential to adversely impact New Delhi’s relations with Dhaka’s new ruling dispensation.

Q.1. What is the basis of Bangladesh's extradition request for Sheikh Hasina?

Bangladesh cites the 2013 extradition treaty with India, along with arrest warrants issued by the International Crimes Tribunal, accusing Hasina of crimes against humanity and genocide.

Q.2. What challenges does India face in extraditing Sheikh Hasina?

India can refuse extradition citing political nature, lack of good faith, or justice-related concerns. Such a move, however, risks straining bilateral relations and affecting regional dynamics.

Source: Bangladesh tells India to send back Sheikh Hasina for ‘judicial process’ | Indian Express