Articles on 25 December 2025

Environmental degradation, climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution have emerged as some of the most critical global challenges of the 21st century. To address these concerns, nations across the world have come together under various international environmental conventions and protocols, creating legal, institutional, and cooperative mechanisms for environmental protection.

This article presents a comprehensive and updated overview of major international environmental conventions, protocols, and summits, their objectives, timelines, and relevance for India.

Major Environmental Conventions and Protocols

Environmental Conventions and Protocols are international agreements aimed at protecting the environment, biodiversity, and climate. All the Major Environmental Conventions and Protocols have been tabulated below.

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971)

• The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands was adopted on 2 February 1971 at Ramsar, Iran, it is the first global treaty dedicated to the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.
• The Convention aims at the “wise use” of wetlands, ensuring ecological conservation while allowing sustainable human use.
• Wetlands under Ramsar include natural and man-made ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, marshes, mangroves, coral reefs, reservoirs, and rice fields.
• Member countries designate Ramsar Sites based on ecological importance, biodiversity value, and significance for waterfowl and aquatic species.
• India became a contracting party in 1982 and currently has 96 Ramsar Sites, reflecting its commitment to wetland conservation.
• The Convention promotes international cooperation, especially for transboundary wetlands and migratory species, and is supported by NGOs like WWF and IUCN.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 1973

• CITES was adopted in 1973 at Washington D.C. and came into force in 1975 to regulate international trade in endangered wild fauna and flora.
• Its primary objective is to ensure that international trade does not threaten the survival of species, covering live specimens, animal parts, and plant derivatives.
• Species are listed under Appendix I (trade prohibited except in exceptional cases), Appendix II (regulated trade), and Appendix III (protected in at least one country).
• CITES is a legally binding international agreement with over 180 member countries, including India, which joined in 1976.
• Implementation is carried out through a permit and licensing system, monitored by Management and Scientific Authorities in each member country.
• CITES focuses on trade regulation rather than habitat protection, making it a key convention for controlling wildlife trafficking and illegal trade.

Bonn Convention 1979

• The Bonn Convention, officially called the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), was adopted in 1979 and came into force in 1983.
• It is the only global treaty dedicated exclusively to the conservation of migratory species, their habitats, and migration routes across international boundaries.
• Migratory species are protected through Appendix I (endangered migratory species - strict protection) and Appendix II (species requiring international cooperation).
• The Convention brings together Range States, countries through which migratory species pass, to ensure coordinated conservation efforts.
• The CMS Secretariat is headquartered in Bonn, Germany, and operates under the aegis of UNEP.
• India has been a party since 1983, with notable migratory species including Amur Falcons, Bar-headed Geese, and marine turtles.

Vienna Convention (1985)

• The Vienna Convention was adopted in 1985 and entered into force in 1988 to protect the Earth’s ozone layer from depletion.
• It provides a framework for international cooperation rather than imposing legally binding emission-reduction targets.
• The Convention promotes scientific research, systematic observation, and information exchange on ozone-depleting substances.
• It laid the institutional and legal foundation for the Montreal Protocol (1987).
• Parties commit to cooperate on technology transfer and policy coordination related to ozone protection.
• India became a Party in 1991, aligning with global efforts to safeguard the ozone layer.

Montreal Protocol (1987)

• Adopted in 1987 and enforced from 1989, the Montreal Protocol is a legally binding agreement under the Vienna Convention.
• It aims to phase out production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) such as CFCs, halons, and carbon tetrachloride.
• The Protocol operates on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, granting developing countries extended timelines.
• It has been revised multiple times (London, Copenhagen, Beijing, etc.) to include additional substances and stricter controls.
• The Kigali Amendment (2016) further expanded its scope to phase down climate-warming HFCs.

Basel Convention (1989)

• Adopted in 1989 and entered into force in 1992, the Basel Convention regulates cross-border movement of hazardous wastes.
• It was framed in response to the dumping of toxic wastes in developing countries, particularly in Africa.
• The Basel Convention aims to protect human health and the environment from adverse impacts of hazardous and other wastes.
• It mandates prior informed consent (PIC) of importing countries before waste shipment.
• The scope includes industrial hazardous waste, biomedical waste, household waste, and incinerator ash.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• CBD was adopted in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit and entered into force in 1993.
• It has three objectives: conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use, and fair benefit sharing.
• It is a legally binding multilateral treaty with near-universal membership.
• The United States is the only UN member not to have ratified CBD.
• Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol are its supplementary agreements.
• CBD promotes ecosystem, species, and genetic diversity conservation.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• UNFCCC was adopted in 1992 at Rio to address global climate change.
• Its objective is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations to prevent dangerous climate change.
• It operates on the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).
• It provides the framework for the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement.
• The UNFCCC Secretariat is headquartered in Bonn, Germany.
• Annual Conference of Parties (COP) meetings guide global climate action.

Rio Earth Summit (1992)

• The Rio Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1992).
• It marked a turning point in global environmental diplomacy.
• Key outcomes included Agenda 21, Rio Declaration, UNFCCC, and CBD.
• It emphasized sustainable development linking environment and development.
• Participation included 179 countries and numerous NGOs.
• It institutionalized the concept of global environmental cooperation.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

• UNCCD was adopted in 1994 to combat desertification, land degradation, and drought, especially in dryland regions.
• It is a legally binding convention linking environmental protection with sustainable development and poverty reduction.
• The Convention focuses on arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, which are ecologically fragile and highly vulnerable.
• Member countries implement the Convention through National Action Programmes (NAPs) with community participation.
• It promotes Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) to balance land degradation with restoration efforts.
• India is a Party to UNCCD and hosted COP-14 in New Delhi (2019), highlighting sustainable land management.

Kyoto Protocol

• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 under the UNFCCC and entered into force in 2005.
• It imposed legally binding greenhouse gas emission reduction targets on developed (Annex-I) countries.
• The Protocol operationalised the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).
• It introduced market-based mechanisms such as the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation, and Emissions Trading.
• Developing countries, including India, had no mandatory emission reduction obligations.
• The Protocol laid the foundation for global carbon markets and future climate agreements.

Rotterdam Convention

• The Rotterdam Convention was adopted in 1998 and entered into force in 2004.
• It regulates the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides.
• The Convention is based on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure, requiring importing countries’ approval.
• Its objective is to protect human health and the environment from potential chemical hazards.
• It promotes information exchange on risks and safe handling of hazardous chemicals.
• The Convention covers industrial chemicals and pesticides that are banned or severely restricted.

Stockholm Convention

• The Stockholm Convention was adopted in 2001 and entered into force in 2004.
• It aims to eliminate or restrict persistent organic pollutants (POPs) globally.
• POPs are toxic, bio-accumulative, long-lasting, and capable of long-range environmental transport.
• The Convention applies the precautionary principle in managing chemical risks.
• It seeks to protect human health and the environment, especially vulnerable populations.
• Parties are required to reduce, restrict, or eliminate POPs through national action plans.

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted in 2000 under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• It entered into force in 2003 and is a legally binding international agreement.
• The Protocol regulates the transboundary movement of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology.
• It follows the precautionary approach, allowing countries to restrict LMOs even in the absence of full scientific certainty.
• It mandates risk assessment and risk management before approval of LMOs.
• The Protocol aims to protect biological diversity and human health from potential adverse effects of LMOs.

UN-REDD

• The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN-REDD) was launched in 2008 as a United Nations collaborative programme.
• It is jointly implemented by UNDP, UNEP, and FAO.
• The programme supports developing countries in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
• It provides technical assistance, capacity building, and policy support for forest governance.
• UN-REDD strengthens forest monitoring, measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems.
• It contributes to climate change mitigation, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable livelihoods.

REDD+

• REDD+ is a climate change mitigation mechanism developed under the UNFCCC framework.
• It aims to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries.
• The “+” includes forest conservation, sustainable forest management, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
• The framework was formally adopted as the Warsaw Framework for REDD+ at COP-19 (2013).
• REDD+ is recognised under Article 5 of the Paris Agreement.
• It encourages results-based finance and incentives for verified emission reductions.

Nagoya Protocol

• The Nagoya Protocol was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• It focuses on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) of genetic resources.
  The Protocol ensures fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.
• It provides a legal framework for researchers and companies accessing genetic resources.
• It strengthens sovereign rights of countries over their genetic resources.
• Implementation supports biodiversity conservation and sustainable use through economic and scientific incentives.

Minamata Convention

• The Minamata Convention was adopted in 2013 and entered into force in 2017 to address mercury pollution.
• It aims to protect human health and the environment from the harmful effects of mercury.
• The Convention bans new mercury mines and phases out existing ones.
• It regulates mercury use in products, industrial processes, and artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM).
• It establishes control measures for air emissions, waste disposal, and contaminated sites.

Kigali Amendment

• The Kigali Amendment was adopted in 2016 under the Montreal Protocol to address hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
• HFCs do not deplete the ozone layer but have a high global warming potential, contributing to climate change.
• The Amendment mandates a gradual phase-down of HFC production and consumption.
• India will implement the phase-down in four stages from 2032 to 2047.

Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), 2022

• The CCTS was enabled through the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022, establishing a domestic carbon market in India.
• It allows trading of Carbon Credit Certificates for verified greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions.
• The scheme operates through two mechanisms:
  • Compliance Mechanism – for obligated entities to meet emission reduction targets.
  • Offset Mechanism – for non-obligated entities to earn credits by reducing/removing emissions.
• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) manages the scheme and ensures transparency via the Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) framework.
• The National Steering Committee for Indian Carbon Market (NSCICM) provides strategic oversight.
• CCTS supports India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and climate mitigation targets under the Paris Agreement.

Difference Between Conferences, Conventions and Protocols

Environmental agreements have different forms based on purpose and legal binding nature. The Difference Between Conferences, Conventions and Protocols has been highlighted below.