Articles on 4 January 2026

The 12th Schedule of Indian Constitution discusses the powers, authority, and responsibilities of Municipalities. It was added through the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992, which marked a major step toward decentralising governance in urban areas. The amendment aimed to strengthen Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) by empowering them with the 3Fs, Functions, Funds, and Functionaries.

Schedule of Indian Constitution

The Constitution of India was adopted on January 26, 1950 which consists of 8 Schedules initially which expanded to 12 Schedule of Indian Constitution through amendment.

12th Schedule of the Indian Constitution Provisions

Article 243W of the Indian Constitution empowers municipalities to function as effective institutions of self-government. It allows the State Legislature to assign powers, authority, and responsibilities to municipalities through legislation. These powers include:

• Preparing plans for economic development and social justice
  
  
• Implementing schemes related to subjects entrusted to them, such as those listed in the 12th Schedule
  
  

This provision is the constitutional foundation for decentralised urban governance in India.

Types of Municipal Bodies under Article 243W:

1. Nagar Panchayat - for transitional areas (moving from rural to urban)
2. Municipal Council - for smaller urban areas
3. Municipal Corporation - for larger urban areas

12th Schedule of Indian Constitution Subjects

The 12th Schedule of the Indian Constitution includes 18 functional items under the domain of municipalities:

• Urban planning including town planning;
• Regulation of land use and construction of buildings;
• Planning for economic and social development;
• Roads and bridges;
• Water supply for domestic, industrial, and commercial purposes;
• Public health, sanitation, conservancy, and solid waste management;
• Fire services;
• Urban forestry, protection of the environment, and promotion of ecological aspects;
• Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society, including the handicapped and mentally retarded;
• Slum improvement and up-gradation;
• Urban poverty alleviation;
• Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens, and playgrounds;
• Promotion of cultural, educational, and aesthetic aspects;
• Burials and burial grounds, cremations and cremation grounds, and electric crematoriums;
• Cattle ponds, prevention of cruelty to animals;
• Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths;
• Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops, and public conveniences; and
• Regulation of slaughterhouses and tanneries.

The 11th Schedule of Indian Constitution was included in 1992 by the 73rd Constitution Amendment Act which includes the powers, authority, and responsibilities of the Panchayat System. It has 29 subjects such as Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Fishery, etc.

11th Schedule of Indian Constitution Provisions

• The state legislature is established to implement the laws which provide power and authority to the Panchayat to function effectively as units of local self government.
• The 11th Schedule of Indian Constitution includes the scope of the responsibilities which lists 29 subjects that Panchayats may be entrusted with, ranging from agriculture and rural housing to education and social welfare which includes: 
  • Agriculture, including agricultural extension.
  • Land improvement, implementation of land reforms, land consolidation, and soil conservation.
  • Minor irrigation, water management, and watershed development.
  • Animal husbandry, dairying, and poultry.
  • Fisheries.
  • Social forestry and farm forestry.
  • The minor forest produces.
  • Small-scale industries, including food processing industries.
  • Khadi, village, and cottage industries.
  • Rural Housing.
  • Drinking water.
  • Fuel and fodder.
  • Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries, waterways, and other means of communication.
  • Rural electrification, including the distribution of electricity.
  • Non-conventional energy sources.
  • Poverty alleviation program.
  • Education, including primary and secondary schools.
  • Technical training and vocational education.
  • Adult and non-formal education.
  • Libraries.
  • Cultural activities.
  • Markets and fairs.
  • Health and sanitation including hospitals, primary health centers, and dispensaries.
  • Family welfare.
  • Women and child development.
  • Social welfare, including the welfare of the handicapped and mentally retarded.
  • The welfare of the weaker sections, in particular, of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.
  • Public Distribution System.
  • Maintenance of community assets.

The 10th Schedule of Indian Constitution, added through the 52nd Amendment in 1985, introduced as the Anti-Defection Law. It was the first time the term "political party" officially appeared in the Constitution. This law was brought in to curb political defections, a growing problem at the time and to ensure elected representatives remained loyal to the party on whose ticket they won.

What is Defection?

Defection happens when a member of a political party abandons their loyalty to the party either by resigning or switching sides. For example, a politician might quit their party in one state and join another in a different state, often for personal or political gain. This kind of party-hopping disrupts governance, weakens public trust, and raises serious concerns about the leader’s commitment to voters and party ideology.

10th Schedule of Indian Constitution Provisions

• Definition: Defection happens when a legislator voluntarily gives up their party membership or votes against the party’s official line. It doesn’t have to be a formal resignation even actions or statements can signal defection.
• Grounds for Disqualification: A member caught defying the party whip or switching sides without proper approval can be disqualified from their seat. This applies to both elected and nominated members.
• What Doesn’t Count as Defection: There are exceptions. For example, if a legislator is elected as the Speaker of the House and then resigns from their party to maintain neutrality, they won’t be disqualified.
• Role of Courts: While the Tenth Schedule tried to keep courts out of defection cases, the Supreme Court in Kihoto Hollohon vs Zachillhu (1992) made it clear: the Speaker’s decisions can be reviewed by the courts under Articles 32 and 226.
• Framing the Rules: Each House, the Lok Sabha or a State Assembly can set its own rules for handling defection cases. The Speaker or Chairman gets the authority to do this, which gives some flexibility based on the House’s needs.

Also Check: 1st Schedule of Indian Constitution

Anti-Defection Law Process

When a legislator is suspected of defection, a petition can be filed before the Speaker or Chairman of the House. Contrary to popular belief, there's no requirement for one-third of party members to sign it, anyone, including another legislator, can raise the complaint.

The Speaker (or Chairman in the Rajya Sabha or State Councils) reviews the petition, examines the facts, and may seek explanations from the accused member. If satisfied that defection has taken place, the member is disqualified under the Tenth Schedule.

Here’s the thing: the Speaker’s decision is considered final within the House, but it isn’t above judicial review. The disqualified member can challenge the ruling in the High Court or Supreme Court and not appeal to the President. The part about the President and Election Commission only applies in cases involving disqualification under Articles 102 or 191, not defection.

Also Check: 4th Schedule of Indian Constitution

10th Schedule of Indian Constitution Merits

• Stability in Governance: The 10th Schedule of Indian Constitution has helped prevent the chaos of frequent party-switching. By keeping legislators from jumping ship for personal gain or political bargains, it adds a layer of stability to both state and central governments. Fewer defections mean fewer mid-term collapses and smoother continuity in governance.
• Preserving the Voter’s Mandate: The anti-defection law protects the spirit of the vote. When a candidate wins on a party ticket, they’re expected to stick with that party’s platform. Switching sides mid-term is seen as a betrayal not just of the party, but of the voters who backed that candidate. This law helps keep that trust intact.

10th Schedule of Indian Constitution Demerits

• Weakening Independent Voices: One major criticism of the Anti-Defection Law is that it clips the wings of independent thinking within parties. Legislators who disagree with their party’s stance on key issues often stay silent not because they’re convinced, but because speaking out could cost them their seat. This stifles healthy debate and turns representatives into rubber stamps.

• Tool for Political Control: The law, meant to curb opportunism, has sometimes been turned into a political weapon. Party leaders have used the threat of disqualification to silence dissent or force compliance. Instead of addressing genuine concerns from within, parties have used the law to enforce loyalty through fear.

Also Check: 7th schedule of indian constitution

Anti-Defection Law Case

The phrase “Aaya Ram Gaya Ram” became a political shorthand for party-hopping in India. It goes back to 1967, when Haryana MLA Gaya Lal famously switched parties three times in a single day. That moment exposed just how easily politicians could jump ship for personal or political gain. It was this kind of instability that pushed Parliament to introduce the Anti-Defection Law in 1985. Keep elected officials loyal to their party, reduce political chaos, and protect the spirit of democracy. So when someone says “Aaya Ram Gaya Ram,” they’re pointing to the deeper issue of political flip-flopping.

10th Schedule of Indian Constitution Recent Development

• 91st Amendment Act, 2003: This amendment tightened the rules by disallowing splits in a party as a ground to avoid disqualification. Only mergers were recognized as valid, if at least two-thirds of members agree, the merger is legal and those members won’t face disqualification.

• 97th Constitutional Amendment (Clarification): This doesn’t actually relate to the anti-defection law, it dealt with cooperative societies. The confusion might come from proposals or private members’ bills, but there’s no official 97th Amendment affecting the Tenth Schedule.

Time Limit on Defection Cases: While various court judgments and recommendations have pushed for a clear deadline (often suggesting three months), no constitutional amendment has officially fixed this time frame. It’s been a subject of debate but isn’t yet part of the law.