Gulf War (1990-91), History, Causes, Operations, Campaigns

The Gulf War was a major international conflict that began in 1990 when Iraq invaded Kuwait, triggering global military and diplomatic responses. According to the United Nations and verified military archives, the conflict unfolded in two major phases: Operation Desert Shield (2 August 1990-17 January 1991) and Operation Desert Storm (17 January-28 February 1991) . The war involved massive troop mobilization, advanced air campaigns, and multinational cooperation led by the United States. The Gulf War became a defining event in Middle Eastern geopolitics, reshaping security policies, international alliances, and global oil dynamics through its swift and decisive outcomes.

Gulf War

The Gulf War began after Iraq, led by Saddam Hussein, invaded Kuwait on 2 August 1990, claiming territorial and economic grievances. The invasion was condemned internationally, leading to a United Nations-backed coalition of over 35 nations, led by the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Saudi Arabia. Coalition forces carried out large-scale air and ground operations, leading to Iraq’s withdrawal and Kuwait’s liberation on 28 February 1991 . The Gulf War is widely recognized for its extensive use of precision airpower, satellite-guided weapons, and advanced military coordination, marking it as one of the most technologically significant wars of the 20th century.

Also Read: World War 1

Gulf War Historical Background

The Gulf War background shows tensions shaped by territorial disputes, oil politics, and power struggles in the Middle East.

• Iraq’s long-standing claim that Kuwait historically belonged to its territory created persistent regional friction, particularly after Kuwait’s independence in 1961 (UK National Archives).
• Economic tensions escalated after the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), which left Iraq heavily indebted- over $80 billion, including large debts to Kuwait (World Bank Data).
• Iraq accused Kuwait of exceeding OPEC oil production quotas, lowering global prices and damaging Iraq’s economy (OPEC reports).
• The collapse of oil prices in 1989-1990 intensified Iraq’s financial crisis, increasing its hostility towards Kuwait.
• These historical tensions created the conditions that directly led to Iraq’s invasion in 1990.

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Gulf War Reasons

The Gulf War occurred due to Iraq’s territorial ambitions, economic pressures, and accusations against Kuwait over oil and debt issues.

• Iraq claimed Kuwait was stealing oil from the Rumaila oil field using slant drilling, a charge denied by Kuwait (U.S. Energy Information Administration).
• Iraq wanted OPEC to reduce oil production; Kuwait refused, keeping prices low, harming Iraq’s post-war recovery (OPEC Bulletin).
• Saddam Hussein sought control over Kuwait’s large oil reserves, over 10 percent of global supply (U.S. Geological Survey).
• Iraq also wanted to cancel its debt owed to Kuwait, arguing it was fighting Iran on behalf of Arab interests (Arab League Statements).
• The combination of economic strain and political ambition led Iraq to launch a full-scale invasion.

Gulf War Operations

The Gulf War involved several major military operations conducted by the United States and coalition forces between 1990 and 1991. Each country used its own operation name, and these names are often confused with the overall war title. Below are the major operations, their timelines, and their roles.

• Operation Desert Shield (2 August 1990 -16 January 1991): Operation Desert Shield was the U.S. mission to defend Saudi Arabia after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990. It involved a large military buildup to prevent further Iraqi expansion.
• Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991 – 28 February 1991): Operation Desert Storm was the main combat phase of the Gulf War, beginning with a massive air campaign followed by a ground assault. It aimed to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation.
• Operation Desert Sabre (24-28 February 1991): Also called Operation Desert Sword earlier, this was the fast ground offensive known as the “100-hour war.” It targeted Iraqi ground forces in Kuwait and southern Iraq and ended the conflict quickly.
• Operation Desert Farewell (1991): After Kuwait’s liberation, Operation Desert Farewell involved withdrawing U.S. troops and equipment from the region. It is sometimes referred to as Operation Desert Calm.
• Opération Daguet (France): France’s contribution to the Gulf War was known as Opération Daguet, including ground forces deployed in Saudi Arabia and later involved in the liberation of Kuwait.
• Operation Granby (United Kingdom): The United Kingdom named its military involvement Operation Granby, covering British air, naval, and land combat during the Gulf War.
• Operation Friction (Canada): Canada participated through Operation Friction, focusing on naval and air support to the coalition forces.
• Operazione Locusta (Italy): Italy’s military deployment during the Gulf War was called Operazione Locusta, involving air missions in support of coalition air strikes.
• Operativo Alfil (Argentina): Argentina contributed naval support under Operativo Alfil, helping enforce maritime controls in the Gulf region.
• Operation Nightingale (Singapore): A humanitarian mission by Singapore’s armed forces during the war, treating 210 casualties.

Also Read: Inter-War Period

Gulf War Campaigns

The United States formally divided the Gulf War into three military campaigns, each marking a different phase of the conflict.

• Defense of Saudi Arabia (2 August 1990 – 16 January 1991): This campaign covered the initial defense preparations after Iraq invaded Kuwait. The goal was to protect Saudi Arabia from a possible Iraqi attack.
• Liberation and Defense of Kuwait (17 January – 11 April 1991): This phase includes the Desert Storm air campaign, the ground offensive, and the complete liberation of Kuwait.
• Southwest Asia Cease-Fire (12 April 1991 – 30 November 1995): After the ceasefire, coalition forces monitored Iraqi compliance, including humanitarian missions such as Operation Provide Comfort, which delivered aid to Kurdish civilians.

Location of Gulf War

The Gulf War took place across the Middle East, mainly in Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and the Persian Gulf waters.

• Major ground battles occurred in Kuwait, including the Al Jahra region and the “Highway of Death” near the Iraq-Kuwait border (U.S. Department of Defense).
• Air operations targeted Iraqi command centers and infrastructure in Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul (U.S. Air Force Gulf War Air Power Survey).
• Coalition troop deployment zones were primarily in northern Saudi Arabia under Operation Desert Shield (Pentagon Archives).
• Naval battles and blockades took place in the Persian Gulf, targeting Iraqi ships and supply routes (U.S. Navy reports).
• Missile attacks from Iraq reached Israel and Saudi Arabia through SCUD launches (Israeli Ministry of Defense).

Gulf War Participating Nations

The Gulf War involved a large multinational coalition along with Iraq and Kuwait under occupation.

• Coalition forces included the United States, United Kingdom, France, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and the exiled Government of Kuwait (UN Security Council Resolutions).
• The United States contributed the largest force: over 540,000 troops, leading overall command under General Norman Schwarzkopf (U.S. Army Archives).
• Total coalition strength exceeded 950,000 soldiers, including 3,113 tanks and 1,800 aircraft .
• Iraq deployed over 600,000 troops in Kuwait, supported by 5,500 tanks and 700+ aircraft 
• More than 35 nations provided military, logistical, financial, or humanitarian support to the coalition.

Gulf War Outcomes

The Gulf War resulted in Kuwait’s liberation, massive Iraqi military losses, regional security changes, and lasting geopolitical shifts across the Middle East. The Gulf War aftermath reshaped security policies, Iraq’s internal politics, and global military strategies.

• Iraq faced severe military losses: over 3,300 tanks, 2,100 APCs, and 2,200 artillery systems destroyed .
• UN sanctions severely restricted Iraq’s oil exports, leading to long-term economic hardships (UN Sanctions Reports 1991).
• A demilitarized zone was created along the Iraq-Kuwait border, monitored by UNIKOM forces (United Nations Peacekeeping).
• Post-war uprisings occurred in Iraq by Shia and Kurdish groups, causing further casualties (Human Rights Watch Reports).
• The U.S. established a long-term military presence in the region, influencing future conflicts, including the 2003 Iraq War.

Gulf War Casualties

Gulf War casualties varied widely between coalition forces, Iraqi soldiers, and civilians across the region.

• Coalition casualties totaled 13,488, with 292 deaths including 147 killed in action and 145 non-hostile deaths .
• Iraq suffered 20,000-50,000 military deaths and 75,000+ wounded, with 80,000-175,000 captured during the conflict .
• Civilian deaths in Iraq reached 3,664 directly, with wider estimates rising to 142,500-206,000 including uprisings (Medact Report).
• Kuwaiti civilian deaths crossed 1,000, with nearly 600 missing citizens after the invasion (Kuwait Government Records).
• Israel and Saudi Arabia suffered 75 civilian deaths and 309 injuries from Iraqi SCUD missile attacks (Israeli Civil Defense Reports).

Gulf War UPSC

The Gulf War remains one of the most significant international conflicts of the late 20th century because of its scale, technology, and geopolitical impact. It ended with a decisive coalition victory, liberating Kuwait and weakening Iraq’s military and economic capabilities. The conflict demonstrated the effectiveness of multinational security cooperation and modern airpower, while also exposing the humanitarian costs of large-scale military intervention. Post-war sanctions, border monitoring, and continued instability shaped future regional politics. The Gulf War fundamentally transformed Middle Eastern security strategies and remains an important case study in global diplomacy, coalition warfare, and international crisis management.