Mughal Empire, History, Timeline, Rulers List, Map, UPSC Notes

The Mughal Empire ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to mid-19th centuries. Founded in 1526 by Babur, a Timurid prince descended from Turkic-Mongol ancestors, the Mughal dynasty expanded its territories under influential rulers like Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. The Mughals ushered in an era of political unity, military strength, architectural marvels, and cultural synthesis of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian traditions.

They left an invaluable legacy, including iconic monuments like the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Fatehpur Sikri, showcasing their architectural brilliance. The Mughal dynasty ruled over an incredibly prosperous empire until its decline in the early 18th century.

Babur was descended from Timur and Genghis Khan, he invaded Punjab areas between 1519 and 1524. Crossing the Indus after conquering Kabul and Ghazni, he capitalised on discontent against the Delhi Sultanate. Defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat in 1526, Babur founded the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.

Mughal Dynasty Rulers

The Mughals, descendants of the Timurid dynasty, ruled the Indian subcontinent from 1526 to 1857. Notable rulers like Akbar, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb shaped its culture and expansion.

Babur

• His victory over Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 enabled him to establish the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.
• Babur consolidated his reign through subsequent victories against Rajput and Afghan forces at Khanwa, Chanderi, and Ghagra.
• He was a scholar of Persian and Arabic languages. He left a literary legacy with his acclaimed memoir, the Baburnama.
• Key Battles:
  • First Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi, conquering Delhi and Agra.
  • Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar and Afghan allies.
  • Battle of Chanderi (1528): Victory over Medini Rai, securing Malwa region.
  • Battle of Ghagra (1529): Defeated Afghan rebels led by Mahmud Lodi.

Humayun

• Unlike his father Babur, Humayun was known more for his cultural and scholarly interests than his military skills.
• He faced challenges from a weak financial system, predatory Afghans, and threats from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• The rise of Sher Shah in Bihar and UP led to conflicts, including the battles of Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540), where Humayun lost his kingdom.
  • However, as the Sur Empire declined, Humayun invaded and regained Delhi, becoming Emperor again.

Akbar

• Akbar, one of the greatest Mughal emperors, ascended the throne at the age of 13 after the untimely death of his father Humayun.
• He embarked on an ambitious military campaign, annexing regions like Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, and Kabul, expanding the Mughal Empire immensely.
• Akbar adoptedpolicies of religious tolerance and abolished discriminatory taxes like jizya, leading to a golden period. Akbar started a syncretic religion “ Din-i-Ilahi” incorporating elements from various faiths.
• Akbar’s era witnessed the blending of Indian, Persian, and Islamic influences, epitomised by the construction of his capital city, Fatehpur Sikri.

Jahangir

• He ascended the throne in 1605 after rebelling against his father Akbar.
• His reign witnessed the consolidation of the Mughal Empire, with the annexation of Kandahar, Mewar, and Ahmednagar.
• A patron of arts and architecture, he commissioned exquisite buildings like the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.
• Jahangir was deeply influenced by his wife Nur Jahan, who enjoyed a prominent role in the court and administration.
• His autobiography, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, provides insights into his life and reign.

Shah Jahan

• Shah Jahan ascended the Mughal throne in 1628 after revolting against his father Jahangir.
• His reign marked the golden age of Mughal architecture. He commissioned the construction of the iconic Taj Mahal as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The Red Fort in Delhi and the Jama Masjid, one of the largest mosques in India, were also built during his reign.
• However, wars of succession between his sons towards the end of his rule drained the empire’s resources. He was eventually imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in 1658, spending his last years under house arrest.

Aurangzeb

• His reign witnessed the largest territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire.
• He was an orthodox ruler who attempted to establish Islamic rule by reimposing the jizya tax and destroying Hindu temples.
• His intolerant policies led to resentment, revolts by Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, and the weakening of the empire.
• Despite military campaigns in the Deccan against Shivaji and the siege of Golconda, Aurangzeb could not fully subjugate the Marathas.

Later Mughals

• After Aurangzeb died in 1707, the Mughal Empire witnessed a steady decline. A series of weak and ineffective rulers like Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, and Farrukhsiyar could not control the increasing ambitions of provincial governors and aristocrats.
• The Mughal emperors became mere puppets, with the real power resting in the hands of their ministers.
• The empire disintegrated rapidly due to court intrigues, civil wars, and relentless attacks from the Marathas, Afghans, and Persians.
• The invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739 completely stripped the Mughals of their wealth and glory.
• By the mid-18th century, the once mighty Mughal Empire had been reduced to the City of Delhi, eventually coming under British control.

Decline of the Mughals

• Internal conflicts: Power struggles and infighting among the royal family members weakened the central authority and drained the empire’s resources.
• Degeneration of nobility: The decline in nobility’s character and capabilities mirrored the weakening empire.
• Rise of regional powers: The emergence of powerful regional kingdoms, such as the Marathas and the Sikhs, challenged the Mughal’s dominance and sparked prolonged conflicts.
• Economic decline: The decline in agricultural productivity, coupled with the drain of wealth through extravagant expenditures and mismanagement of resources, led to economic instability.
• Declining military strength: The once formidable Mughal army lost its edge due to outdated military tactics, inadequate training, and a lack of modernization.
• Foreign invasions: The Mughal Empire faced repeated invasions from the Persians and the Afghans, further eroding its power and territorial holdings.

Mughal Empire Administrative, Socio-Economic Structure

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Administration of Mughals

Administrative unit	Details
Central Administration	– Emperor (Badshah) held supreme authority – Aided by a council of ministers (Diwan-i-Kul) – Key positions Wazir: Prime Minister Diwan: Head of Finances and Expenditure Mir Bakshi: Head of Military Sadr-us-Sadur: Head of Religious Affairs Mir Saman: Head of Karkhanas
Administrative Divisions	– Empire divided into provinces (Subas) governed by Subahdars – Subas further divided into Sarkars (districts) and Parganas (groups of villages) – Faujdars (military commanders) maintained law and order
Provincial Administration	– Sipahsalar: Civil and military head representing the Emperor. – Diwan: Managed revenue administration. – Bakshi: Organized the army within the province. – Sadr: Oversaw judicial affairs
District & Village Administration	– District Officers: Fauzdar: Administrative head ensuring law and order. Amalguzar: Responsible for land revenue collection. – Village Officers: Muqaddam: Headman overseeing village affairs. Patwari: Accountant managing village records
Revenue System	– Land revenue was the primary source of income Jagirdari System: Babur distributed land as Jagirs to nobles and high-ranking officers, to collect revenues instead of cash salaries. Jagirdari rights were not hereditary, but transferable at the emperor’s will. Dahsala System: Introduced in 1580, it standardised land measurement and revenue collection, enhancing state income and cultivator conditions Zabt/Bandobast System: Under Akbar, It was developed by Raja Todar Mal, land measured and classified based on soil fertility. Zamindari System: It emerged during the decline of the Mughal Empire, granting hereditary rights over landed estates to zamindars (landowners) who had to pay a fixed annual revenue to the Mughal court after collecting taxes from peasants. – Revenue was assessed as a share of the estimated produce (usually one-third)
Mansabdari System	– Civilian and military officials were assigned ranks (mansabs) – Salary and military responsibilities were determined by mansab rank – Mansabdars held dual ranks – zat and sawar -The mansab rank was not hereditary & mansabdars were paid by assigning jagir.
Legal System	– Based on a combination of Islamic law (Sharia) and local customs – Qazi (judge) administered justice with the assistance of muftis (legal experts)

Economic Conditions

• Agriculture: The Mughal economy was largely agrarian, with agriculture as the chief economic activity and land revenue as the primary source of income.
• Crops:
• Ain-i-Akbari listed crops for Rabi and Kharif seasons
• Introduction of tobacco, maize, chilli, pineapple, grafted mangoes, potato, tomato, and guava.
• Indigo and sericulture (silk) were important commercial crops
• Urban economy:
• Craft industries like cotton textiles, iron, copper, diamond mining, and gun making
• Karkhanas (workshops) for expensive craft production
• Trade and commerce:
• Political integration and efficient law and order facilitated trade
• Trading centres: Bengal (rice, sugar, muslin, silk), Coromandel coast (textiles), Lahore (shawls, carpets)
• Hundi (letters of credit) facilitated the movement of goods
• Prominent trading communities: Banjaras, Bohra Muslims, Marwaris, Chettiars, Europeans
• Sarais (inns): Network of sarais enabled traders and merchants to travel across the empire

Mughal Society

• The Mughal society was hierarchical and stratified based on birth, occupation, and religion.
• The dominant groups were the aristocracy, religious scholars, and landowners.
• The nobility comprised Turks, Persians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims who held administrative and military positions.
• Hindus were allowed to practice their religion but were subject to taxes like jizya.
• Rural society consisted of powerful zamindars, peasants, and artisans organised into guilds. Urban centres had merchants, bankers, artisans, and intellectuals patronised by the court.
• Despite limited social mobility, Akbar promoted a more inclusive society.
• The patriarchal society confined women’s roles largely to the domestic sphere.

Religious Developments

• The Mughals were Muslims, but their religious policies were generally tolerant towards other faiths.
• Akbar abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and promoted a syncretistic approach with Din-i-Ilahi.
• However, the religious orthodoxy was reasserted under Aurangzeb, who reimposed jizya and pursued a more conservative Islamic policy.
• Sikhism emerged as a distinct religion during this period, shaped byGuru Nanak and subsequent Gurus.
• The Bhakti movementalso gained momentum, with saints like Mirabai, Tulsidas, and Surdas promoting devotional Hindu traditions.
• Sufism, a mystical Islamic order, flourished and influenced literature and music.
• Overall, it was an era marked by the coexistence of diverse religious traditions.

Mughal Art and Architecture

India saw remarkable advancements in painting, architecture, literature, and art during the Mughal era (1526–1857). Persian, Indian, and Central Asian influences were uniquely combined in Mughal art and architecture.

Mughal Architecture

Ruler	Architecture
Babur (1526-1530)	– Kabuli Bagh Mosque, Panipat
Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556)	– Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi – Purana Qila, Delhi – Dinpanah (Old Fort), Delhi
Akbar (1556-1605)	– Agra Fort, Agra – Fatehpur Sikri, Agra – Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri – Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri – Jami Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri
Jahangir (1605-1627)	– Tomb of Akbar, Sikandra, Agra – Shalimar Gardens, Lahore – Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah (Baby Taj), Agra
Shah Jahan (1628-1658)	– Taj Mahal, Agra – Red Fort, Delhi – Jama Masjid, Delhi – Shalimar Gardens, Delhi – Moti Masjid, Agra Fort
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)	– Badshahi Mosque, Lahore – Bibi Ka Maqbara, Aurangabad – Musammam Burj, Agra Fort

Mughal Painting

• Mughal painting flourished under royal patronage, with Humayun bringing Persian painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.
• Akbar commissioned illustrations of literary and religious texts by Hindu and Muslim artists like Baswan, Miskina, and Daswant, depicting works like Mahabharata and Akbar Nama using Indian colours.
• Under Jahangir, painters like Abul Hasan and Bishan Das excelled in portraits, animal paintings, and scenes influenced by European styles.
• However, reduced patronage by later rulers like Aurangzeb due to religious orthodoxy led to a decline in Mughal painting.

Music and Dance during Mughals

The Mughal era witnessed a golden age for music and dance, with the emperors actively promoting art forms and providing a platform for renowned artists to showcase their talents.

• The legendary Hindustani classical singer Tansen, along with Baiju Bawra, Nayak Bakshu, and Sukhvira, were among the renowned musicians patronized by Akbar.
• Jahangir and Shah Jahan also appreciated and promoted music, continuing the Mughal legacy
• Classical dance forms like Kathak, incorporating Persian and Central Asian elements, evolved under Mughal patronage.

Literature during Mughals

The Mughal era witnessed a flourishing of literature, with the emperors patronizing writers and poets.

• Mughal rulers patronized literature in languages like Persian, Urdu, and Turkish, fostering a rich literary culture.
• Persian was the language of the Mughal administration.
• Sufi and Bhakti movements propelled the growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Rajasthani and Gujarati, enhancing cultural diversity.
• Urdu emerged as a common language of communication during Mughal rule.

Book	Author	Details
Tuzuk -i-Baburi	Babur	– Describes Babur’s military tactics and administrative organisation
Humayun Nama	Gulbandan Begum	– Biography of Humayun
Akbar Nama	Abu Fazl	– History of Akbar’s reign
Ain-i-Akbari	Abu Fazl	– Administration of Akbar’s reign
Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh	Badauni	– Account of Akbar’s reign
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri	Jahangir	– Jahangir’s autobiography
Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangir	Mutamid Khan	– Biography of Jahagir
Padshahnama	Abdul Hamid Lahori	– History of Shah Jahan’s reign
Alamgir Nama	Munsi Mirza Muhamma Kazin	– History of Aurangzeb’s rule
Fatwa-i-Alamgiri	Aurangzeb	– Sharia law for the empire
Majma-ul-Bahrain (The Confluence of the Two Seas)	Dara Shikoh	– Diversity and harmony of religions
Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads	Dara Shikoh	– Translated into Persian
Shahnameh	Firdausi	– History of Persian kings.
Nuskho-i- Dilkusha	Bhimsen	– Analysis of Arungzeb’s rule
Ramcharitmanas	Tulsidas	– Ramayana in Awadhi
Sursagar	Sur Das	– Poetry collections (in Brij bhasha)
Rag Darpan	Sarang Dev	– Treatise on Indian classical music
Padmavat	Malik Muhammad Jayasi	– Story of Padmavati and Alauddin Khilji.

Mughal Empire UPSC PYQs

Question 1: With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar? (UPSC Prelims 2022)

1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

1.  1 only
2.  2 only
3.  Both 1 and 2
4.  Neither 1 nor 2

 Answer: (d)

Question 2: Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait? (UPSC Prelims 2019)

1. Humayun
2. Akbar
3. Jahangir
4. Shah Jahan

Answer: (c)

Question 3: Consider the following: (UPSC Prelims 2015)

The arrival of Babur into India led to the

1. introduction of gunpowder in the subcontinent
2. introduction of the arch and dome in the region’s architecture
3. establishment of Timurid dynasty in the region

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

 Answer: (b)