Vijayanagara Empire, Founder, Rulers, Administration, Architecture

Vijayanagara Empire, founded by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I in 1336, was a dominant Southern India empire until the late 17th century. It was ruled by four dynasties—Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu. Known for its administrative structure, the empire had a well-organized polity with governors overseeing provinces, and its economy thrived on agriculture, trade, and industry.

The empire flourished in art, literature, and architecture, with Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit, and Tamil literature gaining prominence. The internal conflicts, succession disputes, and the Battle of Talikota in 1565 led to its decline. 

Vijayanagara Empire Foundation

Vijayanagara Empire was a dominant Southern India empire that spanned from 1336 to the end of the 17th century. It was founded in 1336 by the brothers Harihara (Hakka) and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama Dynasty, who were originally feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal, and after their fall, they served as ministers in the Kampili state (modern Karnataka).

• Religion Conversion: When Kampala was overrun by Muhammad bin Tughla, the two brothers were imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. 
• Foundation of Vijayanagara City: They also proclaimed their independence, and to commemorate the memory of their guru, the brothers founded a new city of Vidyanagar or Vijayanagara (meaning city of victory) on the south bank of the river Tungabhadra.

Vijayanagara Empire Important Dynasties

The Vijayanagara kingdom encompassed the entire Southern India, extending to Rameshwaram, including Tamil Nadu and the territories of the Cheras in present-day Kerala. From 1336 to 1646 AD, it was ruled by sixteen rulers from four dynasties.

• Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485): First dynasty to rule over the Vijayanagara empire. The founders of the empire, Harihar I and Bukka, belonged to this dynasty.
• Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505): Founded by Narasimha, succeeded the Sangama dynasty as the second dynasty of the empire. They ruled over almost the whole of South India.
• Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570): Founded by Vir Narsimha, the most famous king of the Vijayanagar Empire, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to this dynasty. 
• Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1650): Founded by Tirumala, this was the fourth and last Hindu dynasty to rule the Vijayanagar kingdom in South India.

Vijayanagara Empire Sangama Dynasty, Rulers

Sangama Dynasty ruled the Vijayanagara Empire from 1336 to 1485 AD. Key rulers like Harihara I, Bukka Raya I, and Deva Raya I & II strengthened the empire’s authority, administrative structure, and military power. Their reign established Vijayanagara as a dominant force in southern India.

Vijayanagara Empire Harihara I

Harihara I, also known as ‘Hakka’ or ‘Vira Harihara,’ was the eldest son of Bhavana Sangama and a descendant of the Kuruba clan. He founded the Vijayanagara Empire and the Sangama Dynasty. He governed the Northern regions of the Hoysala Empire until taking over the empire in 1343 after Hoysala Veera Ballala III passed away.

• Following his ascension to power, he built a fort at Barkuru on the western coast (Karnataka).

• Nayankara system: He established the Nayankara system, which designated military officers as ‘nayakas’ (local governors) to supervise estate management and troop mobilization.
• Administration: With his minister Anantarasa Chikka Udaiya, he reorganized the civil administration. The kingdom was divided into sthalas, nidus, and simas, with officers appointed for revenue collection and administration.

Vijayanagara Empire Bukka

Bukka Raya (1356 to 1377), during his 21-year reign, expanded the empire significantly, conquering the Kingdom of Arcot and the Reddis of Kondavidu by 1360 and annexing Penukonda. He established Vijayanagara as the empire’s new capital, replacing Anegondi, for better security. 

• By 1371, he defeated the Sultanate of Madurai and extended his territory to Rameswaram, with his son Kumara Kampana supporting these campaigns, as recorded in the Sanskrit text “Madura Vijayam.”
• Bukka faced multiple clashes with the Bahmani Sultanate, particularly during the reigns of Mohammed Shah I and Mujahid Shah Bahmani.
• Literature: He appointed the Telugu poet Nachana Soma as court poet and supported intellectuals like Vidyaranya and Sayana. Under his reign, commentaries on the Vedas were produced.

Vijayanagara Empire Harihara II

Harihara II (1377 to 1406), the Vijayanagara Empire expanded towards the eastern seacoast. He engaged in conflicts with the Reddis of Kondavidu for control of Andhra, between Nellore and Kalinga, and successfully conquered the Addanki and Srisailam areas.

• Harihara II was able to maintain his position in the face of the Bahmani Warangal alliance. His notable victory was in capturing Belgaum and Goa in the west of the Bahmani Sultanate.
• Titles: Vaidikamarga Sthapanacharya and Vedamarga Pravartaka for his contributions to religious and literary scholarship.
• He supported Kannada poet Madhura, who was a Jaina. Under his reign, an important work on the Vedas was completed.

Vijayanagara Empire Deva Raya I

Deva Raya I (1406 to 1422) was a skilled ruler and warrior, involved in constant conflicts with the Velamas of Telangana, the Bahmani Sultan of Gulbarga, the Reddis of Kondavidu, and the traditional rivals of Vijayanagara, the Gajapatis of Kalinga.

• He defeated Firoz Shah at Pangal in 1420 and by 1422 controlled territory up to the Krishna–Tungabhadra doab.
• Construction of Dams: He constructed a dam on the Tungabhadra River and another on the Haridra River to ensure water supply for his kingdom.
• Modernisation of Army: He modernised the Vijayanagar army by improving the cavalry, employing Turkic archers, and procuring horses from Arabia and Persia. 
  • He maintained a secular attitude in administrative matters. He had 10,000 Muslims in his army, being the first Vijaynagar king to do so.
• Foreigners Accounts: Italian traveller Nicolo Conti (1420) and Russian merchant Nikitin (author of Voyage to India) visited during his reign.

Vijayanagara Empire Deva Raya II

Deva Raya II (1425-1446) was the greatest of the Sangama dynasty rulers and was an able administrator and an ambitious warrior. He authored well-known works in the Kannada language (Sobagina Sone and Amaruka) and the Sanskrit language (Mahanataka Sudhanidhi). 

• Under his reign, prominent Kannada poets such as Chamarasa and Kumara Vyasa gained his patronage.  
  • The Sanskrit poet Gunda Dimdima and Telugu poet Kavisarvabhauma (Emperor among Poets) Srinatha, author of Haravilasam, were also present at his court. 
• He acquired the title of Gajabetegara (Hunter of Elephants).
• Persian chronicler Abdur Razzak said his empire stretched from Ceylon to Gulbarga and Orissa to Malabar.

Vijayanagara Empire Saluva Dynasty and Rulers

Saluva dynasty, the second to rule the Vijayanagara Empire, originated from the Kalyani region of northern Karnataka, as mentioned in the Gorantla inscription. Its founder, Mangaladeva ( great-grandfather of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya), played a crucial role in Emperor Bukka Raya I’s victories over the Madurai Sultanate. The dynasty had three rulers:  

• Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya (1485–1491): The first emperor of the dynasty, he focused on quelling rebellions and countered the expansion of the Gajapati Empire.

• Following his death, his prime minister, Narasa Nayaka, took control, governing effectively until 1503.
• After Narasa’s death, his son, Vira Narasimha, ascended the throne, marking the start of the Tuluva dynasty.

Vijayanagara Empire Tuluva Dynasty and Rulers

Tuluva dynasty, the third ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, traced its roots to Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. His son, Narasimha Nayaka, ended the Saluva dynasty by orchestrating the assassination of Narasimha Raya II and subsequently assumed the throne as Vira Narasimha Raya, marking the rise of the Tuluva dynasty. The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of Krishnadevaraya, the second son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka.

• Notable Rulers of the Tuluva Dynasty are Achyuta Deva Raya and Sadashiva Deva Raya.
• Moreover, the Tuluva dynasty was renowned for military conquests, including victories over the Gajapatis and several Muslim rulers.

Vijayanagara Empire Krishnadevaraya

Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, was also known as ‘Abhinava Bhoja’, ‘Andhra Pitamah’, and ‘Andhra Bhoja’ (as he was a great patron of literature and art). He was a great commander and an efficient administrator. Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. 

• Ashta Diggajas: Eight eminent Telugu scholars, known as the ‘Ashta Diggajas, ‘ graced his court, including Allasani Peddanna, Tenali Ramakrishna, and Pingali Suranna, among others. 
• Books: He authored Amukthamalyadha (Telugu), Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam (Sanskrit). 
• Constructions of Temples: He built some fine stone temples such as the famous the Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar.

Vijayanagara Empire Aravidu Dynasty

Vijayanagara kingdom continued to exist under the Aravidu dynasty, which ruled from Penukonda and later Chandragiri (near Tirupati) for about another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga, and Venkata II were the important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III (1642–1646).

Vijayanagara Empire Polity and Administration

There was a well-organised administration under the Vijayanagar kingdom. The Rayas (king) enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeals. Succession to the throne was mostly on the principle of heredity.

• Administrative Division: The Empire was divided for administrative purposes into several provinces such as Rajya, Mandala and Chavadi, which again were sub-divided into:
  • Venthe: A territorial division higher than a nadu.
  • Nadu: A territorial division higher than a village.
  • Sima: A portion of land comprising several fields village.
  • Sthala: A territorial division higher than a parru, which was again higher than a nadu.

• Provincial Governor: The governors of the provinces were royal princes at first. The provincial governors had a large measure of autonomy as they held their courts, appointed their officers, and maintained their armies. At times, they even issued their coins.
  • The Governor of the Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak. Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.
• Amara-Nayaka System: The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks, Palaiyagars, or Poligars. They were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the Raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area. 
  • These officers were granted land (called amaram) in place of their services, while soldiers were usually paid in cash.
• Land revenue: Fixed at generally one-sixth of the produce.

Vijayanagara Empire Economy

According to the accounts of foreign travellers, the Vijayanagar kingdom was one of the wealthiest kingdoms of the world at that time.

• Irrigation: New tanks were built, and dams were constructed across rivers like the Tungabhadra. Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals. 
• Industries: Initially agrarian, it transitioned to a commercial economy in the 14th century. There were numerous industries, and they were organised into guilds.
• Chief items of exports and imports:  Cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, and sugar were exported; the imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk, and velvet clothes.
• Ports:  The important seaports of the Vijayanagara kingdom were Goa, Chaul and Dabhol, Honavar, Bhatkal, Bakanur and Mangalore.

Vijayanagara Empire Society

The society of the Vijayanagara Empire was intricately structured and shaped by social hierarchy, caste dynamics, and evolving cultural norms. It was marked by a complex blend of religion, politics, and cultural practices.

• Caste: Allasani Peddanna, in his Manucharitam, refers to the existence of four castes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras in the Vijayanagar society.
• Slavery:  Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery in Vijayanagar society.

• Forms of amusement: Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling, and cock-fighting were some of the common forms of entertainment.
• Women in Society: Women in Vijayanagara society were actively engaged in administration, trade, and fine arts. Gangadevi, the wife of Kumarakampana, who authored the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma were two other famous poets. 
• Sati was practised in certain sections of the Vijayanagara Empire.

• • The practice of devadasi (the attachment of dancing girls to temples) was in place.

Vijayanagara Empire Religion

The Vijayanagara emperors were renowned for their religious tolerance. The Sangama rulers, primarily Shaivites, revered Virupaksha as their family deity. Later dynasties, influenced by Vaishnavism, especially the Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja, saw its growing popularity, although Shaivism remained an important part of the empire’s religious practices. Being open to other religions, many Muslims held positions in the administration and were allowed to build mosques and practice their faith.

Vijayanagara Empire Art and Architecture

Vijayanagara architecture is renowned for its grandeur and intricate design. The temples, depicted scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagar architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.

The metal images of Krishnadevaraya and his queens at Tirupati exemplify the skilful casting techniques used for metal sculptures during the period. Notable examples of Vijayanagara temple architecture include:

• Vittalaswamy Temple
• Hazara Ramaswamy Temple
• Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram
• Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram

Vijayanagara Empire Literature

The Vijayanagara rulers patronized Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit, and Tamil literature, with Kannada as the court and administrative language. Telugu gained prominence, especially during Krishnadevaraya’s reign.

• Notable Writers: Krishnadevaraya authored Amuktamalyada and Jambavati Kalyanam. His court hosted the ‘Ashtadiggajas’, including Allasani Peddana and Tenali Ramakrishna.
• Kannada Contributions: Key works include Kumara Vyasa’s Gadugina Bharata, a translation of the epic Mahabharata, and Chamarasa’s Prabhulinga Leele, which reflect both Vaishnava and Veerashaiva devotion.
• Sanskrit Scholars: Prominent scholars like Sayanacharya and Vidyaranya wrote commentaries on the Vedas and the epics.
• Tamil Literature: Devotional works were influenced by the Bhakti movement.
  • Notable figures included Svarupananda Desikar and Tattuvarayar.
  • Key texts include Divya Prabandham and Tevaram.

Vijayanagara Empire Decline

Vijayanagara Empire declined due to continuous warfare, internal conflicts, succession disputes, and weak rulers. Decentralised power led to provincial autonomy, further destabilizing the empire. The Battle of Talikota in 1565 marked a turning point, and though the Aravidu dynasty ruled briefly, the empire ended by 1646.

Vijayanagara Empire UPSC PYQs

Q1. Who among the following rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from the river to the capital city? (UPSC Prelims 2023)

1. a) Devaraya I
2. b) Mallikarjuna
3. c) Vira Vijaya
4. d) Virupaksha

Ans: (a)

Q2. According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in the Vijayanagara Empire were experts in which of the following areas? (UPSC Prelims 2021)

1. Wrestling
2. Astrology
3. Accounting
4. Soothsaying

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

1. a) 1, 2 and 3 only
2. b) 1, 3 and 4 only
3. c) 2 and 4 only
4. d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Ans: (d)

Q3. Which of the following was a major temple constructed during the Vijayanagar Empire? (UPSC Prelims 2019)

1. a) Brihadeeswara Temple
   b) Konark Sun Temple
   c) Meenakshi Temple
   d) Virupaksha Temple

Ans: (d)

Q4. Krishnadeva Raya, the king of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but was also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2016)