Western Chalukyas, Rulers, Administration, Architecture, Literature

Western Chalukyas, successors to the Badami Chalukyas, ruled the Deccan region from the 10th to 12th centuries, with Kalyani as their capital. Known for military strength, diplomatic strategies, and stable administration, they successfully resisted challenges from neighbouring dynasties like the Cholas and Rashtrakutas. They significantly contributed to South India’s cultural development, especially through patronage of arts, architecture, and literature.

Their administration was decentralized, and society experienced reform with the rise of Veerashaivism. Western Chalukyan architecture blended Nagara and Dravidian styles, as seen in temples like the Mahadeva Temple. Literature flourished, with notable contributions in Kannada and Sanskrit by poets like Ranna and Bilhana.

Western Chalukyas Background

Western Chalukyas emerged as successors to the Chalukyas of Badami after a decline in the latter dynasty’s control over Deccan territories. The dynasty was established in the mid-10th century, with Kalyani (present-day Basavakalyan in Karnataka) as its capital. It was strategically positioned to maintain influence over the rich agricultural and trade areas along the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers. 

• The Western Chalukyas rose to power through effective military strategies, alliances, and stable administration.
• They resisted challenges from neighbouring dynasties like the Imperial Cholas and Rashtrakutas, expanding their territory through military and diplomacy.
• Known for their patronage of arts and literature, they significantly influenced South India’s cultural landscape. This period also laid the groundwork for the later expansion and cultural achievements of the Hoysala Empire.

Western Chalukyas Rulers

The Western Chalukyan dynasty, ruling over parts of present-day Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, is known for its influential rulers, military conquests, and contributions to culture and governance. Notable rulers like Tailapa II, Someshwara I, and Vikramaditya VI left lasting legacies through their military campaigns and administrative reforms. 

• Tailapa II (957 AD to 997 AD): The Chalukya dynasty was founded by Tailapa II by defeating the Rashtrakuta ruler Kakka II (Karaka). Tailapa II spent much of his reign battling Munja, the Paramara king of Dhara and defeated him in 995 AD. Two years later, Tailapa II passed away, with his son Satyasraya succeeding him. 
  • Tailpa II patronised a Kannada poet, Ranna, one of the gems of Kannada literature.
• Satyashraya (997 AD to 1008 AD): He continued his father’s aggressive policies and engaged in wars with the Eastern Chalukyas and Cholas. His reign faced a major setback when Rajendra I defeated him under the reign of Rajaraja I.
• Someshwara I (1042 AD to 1068 AD): Also known as Ahavamalla or Trilokamalla. He established Kalyani as its capital. Someshwara I’s reign is remembered for numerous wars. Rajadhiraja I of the Chola dynasty attacked and overran the Chalukyan capital. However, a Chalukyan counterattack forced the Cholas to retreat. 
  • The Chalukya army raided the Chola capital of Kanchipuram under Someshwara-I but was repelled.
  • Rajadhiraja Chola was finally killed in the Battle of Koppam. The brother of Someshwara was killed in this attack. 

• Vikramaditya VI (1076 AD to 1126 AD): He ascended the throne after defeating his brother, Someshwara II, with the support of the Cholas during the reign of Kulottunga I. He was known by the titles “Permadideva” and “Tribhuvanamalla”.
  • He is celebrated as a hero in the poem Vikramankadevacharita, written by the Kashmir poet Bilhana.
  • Vikramaditya VI ruled for nearly half a century, leading the Western Chalukyan Empire with considerable skill and establishing the Chalukya-Vikram era.
  • During his reign, effective governance was achieved, and the renowned jurist Vijnevara lived in the capital, Kalyani. 
  • Vijnevara’s influential treatise on inheritance law became a significant reference in Hindu law, especially outside of Bengal.
• Someshwara IV (1189 AD): Western Chalukyas faced invasions from the Seunas and Hoysalas, and the Hoysala Empire finally destroyed them.
  • He was expelled into exile in 1189 by the Seuna kings. 

Western Chalukyas Administration  

The administrative framework of the Western Chalukyas was characterized by a centralized authority, with the king as the supreme ruler, supported by a council of ministers that included military leaders and revenue officers. This structure facilitated efficient governance across a vast and diverse territory. 

• Succession: The Western Chalukya kingship followed the system of hereditary monarchy.
• Officers: Maha Pradhan (Chief Minister), Sandhivigrahika (chief justice), Dharmadhikari (chief justice), Tadeyadandanayaka (commander of the reserve army). 
• Decentralisation: The administration was highly decentralised and had autonomous feudatory clans such as the Alupas, Hoysalas, Kakatiya, Seuna, and southern Kalachuri.
  • Division of kingdom: Mandalas (Provinces ) → Nadu (Districts) → Kampanas (Groups of villages) → Bada (village). 
  • Women from the royal family also managed Nadus and Kampanas.
• Inscriptions: Western Chalukya inscriptions, carved in stone (Shilashasana) or engraved on copper plates (Tamarashasana), recorded key information such as land grants, genealogies, and administrative rules. These inscriptions ensured clear communication with local populations.
  • A notable feature of this administration was the extensive use of Kannada in inscriptions. Approximately 90% of the inscriptions from this period were composed in Kannada, with the remaining in Sanskrit. 

Western Chalukyas Society

Western Chalukya society experienced significant social reform, especially with the rise of Veerashaivism, which challenged the traditional caste system. Education and religious institutions flourished, promoting learning in various subjects, with women playing a notable role.

• Veerashaivism’s Rise: The rise of Veerashaivism challenged the existing Hindu caste system, which had continued support from the royalty. The movement promoted social reform, especially about the role of women and caste.
• Ritual Practices: Widowhood was widely accepted, and practices like Sati were voluntary, not enforced.
  • Jain communities practised Sallekhana (fasting to death for spiritual liberation), while other groups observed self-sacrificial rituals like Shoolabrahma or walking into the fire during an eclipse.
• Women’s Role: Affluent women like Chandala Devi (Chalukya queen) and Sovala Devi contributed to the arts, while figures like Akkadevi played significant roles in governance. Bhakti poets like Akka Mahadevi gained recognition for their writings.
• Education and Religious Institutions: Institutions like Matha, Palli, and Vihara provided advanced religious education, led primarily by Brahmins.
  • Royal students studied a variety of subjects, with the most popular being Economics (Vartta),  Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (Trayi), and Philosophy (Anvikshiki).

Western Chalukyas Religion  

Religious life under the Western Chalukyas was multifaceted, supporting Hinduism, Jainism, and the emerging Virashaiva movement. Hinduism enjoyed royal patronage, with temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu constructed throughout the region. 

• Jainism: Jainism faced a decline during the Western Chalukya period due to the rise of Virashaivism and Vaishnavism. Despite this decline, Jain worship continued to be patronized in Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.
• Buddhism: Buddhism also saw a decline during this time, with only two centres of Buddhist worship, Dambal and Balligavi, remaining active under the Western Chalukya rule. The spread of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy earlier had contributed to this decline.

• Virashaivism (Lingayat Movement): Gained prominence during the Western Chalukya period, particularly in the 12th century. Basavanna, a key figure in this movement, advocated for equality and rejected the caste system, rituals, and belief in rebirth.
  • The movement emphasized devotion to Lord Shiva and produced a large body of literature in the form of Vachanas (poetic verses).

Western Chalukyas Architechture

The Western Chalukyan Gadag style marked a transitional phase between Badami Chalukyan and Hoysala architecture, blending both Nagara and Dravidian elements, also known as Karnatakadravida or Vesara style. Temples from this period were primarily located in the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab region and often featured Pushkarni (stepped wells) used for ritual bathing.

• Materials: Key materials used in the construction of these temples included lathe-turned pillars and soapstone (Chloritic Schist), which allowed for intricate ornamentation and elaborate architectural designs. 
  • These innovations in style and material became defining features of Western Chalukyan architecture. Key examples of Western Chalukyan architecture are as follows:

• Mahadeva Temple: Located in Itagi and Koppal District of Karnataka, often referred to as “Devalaya Chakravarti”, meaning ‘Emperor among temples.
  • An inscription outside the temple indicates that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of King Vikramaditya VI.
  • It is dedicated to lord Shiva and is an example of Dravida articulation with a Nagara superstructure. The use of soapstone material is abundant.

• Kasi Vishveshvara Temple: Situated in Lakkundi, Gadag district, Karnataka. Western Chalukya rulers built it, and later additions were made by the Hoysala King Veera Ballala II. It is a Dvikuta temple where Kasivisvesvara linga faces east, and Surya deva (Sun) faces west.

• Mallikarjuna Temple: Situated in the town of Kuruvatti, Bellary district  Karnataka. This temple showcases intricate carvings and reflects the architectural brilliance typical of the Gadag style. 
• Kedareswara Temple: Located in Balligavi, this temple is an early example of the amalgamation of Chalukyan and Hoysala architectural styles. 
• Other Notable Temples include Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal (Gadag district), Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatii (Davangere district), Kalleshwara Temple at Bagali (Davangere district), and Siddesvara Temple at Haveri.

Western Chalukyas Literature

The Western Chalukyan period is regarded as a golden age for Kannada and Sanskrit literature. Under the patronage of rulers like Vikramaditya VI, a vibrant literary culture emerged, characterised by significant contributions from poets, scholars, and theologians. Kannada literature flourished during this era, with both Jain and Virashaiva poets playing pivotal roles in its development.

Kannada Literature:  

• Ranna: Sponsored by King Tailapa II, Ranna authored Saahasabheema Vijayam (or Gada yuddha), an epic comparing King Satyasraya to Bhima, narrating the battle between Bhima and Duryodhana.
  • He also wrote Ajitha Purana, detailing the life of the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha.
• Nagavarma II: Poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadhekamalla II. He contributed to Kannada literature with works like Kavyavalokana (poetics), Karnataka-Bhashabhushana (grammar), and Vastukosa (a lexicon).
  • His works became important references for studying Kannada grammar and vocabulary.
• Virashaiva (or Lingayat) Movement: Inspired Vachanas, a form of devotional poetry. Notable poets include Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, and Allama Prabhu.

Sanskrit Literature:

• Bilhana: A Kashmiri poet who wrote Vikramankadeva Charitha, an epic on the achievements of Vikramaditya VI.

• Somesvara III: Authored Manasollasa, an encyclopedic work covering topics such as medicine, music, and games.

• Vijnaneshwara: He wrote Mitakshara, a key legal commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti, influencing the development of legal thought in India.

• Other Work: Rannakanda (Lexicon), Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka (Medicine), Jatakatilaka (Astrology), Lokaparaka (Encyclopedia).
  • Music literature: Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara, and Sangitha Ratnakara, focusing on music and musical instruments.