Imperial Cholas

Chola - Rulers and their Contributions

Period: 850 – 1279 AD

Capital: Tanjore (Thanjavur)

• Cholas remained subordinate to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region after the Sangam period.
• They re-emerged with Vijayalaya (850–871 CE), conquering the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar.
• Sources: Inscriptions engraved on copper and stone form the primary sources for studying Chola history.

Vijayalaya (847 – 871 AD)

• Founder of Chola Empire: He captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815 A.D. and built a temple of Durga.
  • He built the city of Thanjavur and established the Chola kingdom of the imperial line in 850.
• Sources: Kanyakumari inscription mentions the renovation of the city of Tanjore by Vijayala.

Aditya (871 – 907 AD)

• Military conquests: He ended the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and annexing Tondaimandalam.
• He maintained cordial relations with Cheras. 

Parantaka Ⅰ (907 – 955 AD)

• Title and Sources: He assumed the “Madurain-konda” after capturing Pandya capital Madurai. 
  • Uthiramerur inscriptions belong to his reign, which gives a detailed account of the village administration under the Cholas.
• Military conflicts: 
  • Battle of Vellore: He defeated the Pandya ruler Rajasimha II and the Kassapa V of Ceylon in the Battle of Vellore.
  • Battle of Vallala: He defeated Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna II in Deccan in the Battle of Vallala.
  • Battle of Takkolam: He was defeated by Rashtrakutas in 1948, and his eldest son Rajaditya was killed in the battle. 
• He maintained friendly relations with Cheras (Perumals) and married Chera's princess. 

Period of rapid ascension (955 - 987 AD):

• From the death of Parantaka I to the ascension of Rajaraja I, this period of thirty years was marked by the rapid ascension to the Chola throne.
• Rulers after Parantaka I:  
  • Gandaraditya Chola (955 – 956 AD): Second son of Parantaka 
  • Arinjaya Chola (957- 958 AD): Younger brother of Gandaraditya
  • Parantaka II Chola (958 – 973 AD): He was son of Arijinya. He defeated the Pandyas and Ceylon and then recaptured the Tondaimandalam from Rashtrakutas.
  • Uttama Chola (973  – 985 AD): He was the son of Gandaraditya, who ascended the throne after the assassination of Aditya II (son of Parantaka II).

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 AD)

• Succession: Rajaraja I is the most celebrated of the Chola kings. He was the son of Parantaka II and ascended the Chola throne in 985 AD.
• Religion: He was a devout follower of Saivism but tolerant towards other faiths. 
• Titles: Kandalur salai kalamarutta, Jayankonda, Sivapadasekara, Mummudi-Chola (the Chola king who wears three crowns - the Chera, Chola and Pandya), Pandya Kulashani (Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas). 
• His military conquests were: 
  • Against Cheras: He defeated the Chera ruler Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai in 994 AD. 
  • Against Pandyas: He defeated the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and established the Chola authority in the Pandya country. 
  • Against Ganga: He conquered the Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi in the Mysore region. 
  • Western Chalukya wars: He defeated Chalukya ruler Satyasraya and captured the Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places. 
  • The invasion of Sri Lanka: He annexed northern Sri Lanka from Sri Lankan king Mahinda V. The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built 
  • War against Telugu Chodas: He restored the Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu Chodas. Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya.
  • Naval conquests: Rajaraja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive Islands which were conquered. 

Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)

• Succession: Rajendra I was the co-regent during the reign of Rajaraja I. He ascended to the throne in 1012 AD.
• Religion: He was a devout follower of Siva. But he was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.
• Matrimonial relations: He gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi Chalukya prince and further continued the matrimonial alliance initiated by Rajaraja I.
• Policy of aggression: He continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and expansion. 
• Titles: Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan and Pandita Cholan
• His important conquests were: 
  • Conquest of Sri Lanka: Rajendra defeated Ceylon king Mahinda V and seized southern Sri Lanka. Thus the whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire. 
  • Against Western Chalukyas: He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas. 
  • Vengi expedition: He restored the throne of Vengi to King Rajaraja Narendra by defeating Vijayaditya.
  • Expedition to North India: Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. 
  • Naval expedition: Rajendra’s naval expedition to Kadaram or SriVijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan after its success. 

• Contribution to architecture: To commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple in that city. 
  • He also excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the city. 

Rajadhiraja  (1044 – 1052 AD)

• Succession: Rajadhiraja was the son of Rajendra I and ascended to the throne in 1044.
• Titles: Jayamkonda Solan (The Victorious Cholan), Kalyanapuramkonda, Vijaya Rajendra Cholan.
• War against Chalukyas: He lost his life at the battle of Koppam against the western Chalukyan King Someshwar. 
  • He was known as Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (the king who died on an elephant).

Rajendra II (1052 - 1063 AD)

• Succession: He was the younger brother of Rajadhiraja and ascended the throne after the death of Rajadhiraja in the battle of Koppam in 1052. He led the Battle of Koppam afterwards.  
• Military achievements: 
  • He defeated the western Chalukyan king Someshwar in the Battle of Kundal-Sangamam in 1062.
  • He undertook expeditions to the Kalinga Kingdom (Kalinga King Vira Salamegha) and Sri Lanka (Vijayabahu I).
• Contribution to architecture:
  • Ulagalantha Perumal Temple (Tamilnadu) and Veetrirundha Perumal Temple were expanded during his reign. The new shrine from fine black granite was constructed in Ulagalantha Perumal Temple.
  • Rajendra granted the town of Ulakkaiyur gold to build the Agastheeswar Temple, which was dedicated to Shiva.

Virarajendra Chola (1063 - 1067 AD)

Military conquests: 

• He occupied Vengi after defeating Someshwar I and Vikramaditya VI (son of Someshwara I) of Western Chalukyas. 
  • He defeated Someshwar II (son of Someshwara I).
• He led expeditions against Sri Lanka (King Vijaybahu) and Kadaram (on behalf of a king).

Kulottunga I (1070 - 1122 AD)

• Succession: Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangadevi. He succeeded the Chola throne after the Athirajendra Chola.
• Military achievements: He united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire. 
  • He defeated Kalinga king Anantavarman Chodaganga.
• Contemporaries: Kamban and Jayakonda were the scholars in his court.
• Foreign relations: Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya.

Later rulers

• Rulers after Kulothunga I were weak and could not maintain the Chola empire. 
• Rajendra III was the last Chola king who Pandya King Jatavarman Sundarapandya II defeated. 

Administration 

Central Government

• Hereditary monarchial power: The emperor or king was at the head of the administration. The council of ministers assisted him. 
  • Perundanam and sirudanam: They were the administrative machinery comprising various officials.
  • Cholas appointed Brahmins as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus. 
• Chola kings followed the practice of adding the suffix deva to the name of the crowned kings at the time of the coronation.
• They provided extensive grants to the temples to reveal the king's authority. 

Provincial Administration

• Feudatory system: Chola ruler followed the system of feudatories 
• Division of the Chola Empire: Empire into mandalams (under royal princes or officers) →  mandalam into valanadus  (under periyanattar)→ valanadus into nadus (under nattar). 
  • In each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages. 
• Town: The town was known as nagaram, and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.
  • Naattukanakku and nattuviyavan: They were the functionaries for recording the proceedings of the Nattar.

Village Assemblies 

• Village autonomy: The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule.
• Sources: Uttarmerur inscription provides details of the formation and functions of village councils. 
  • Ur: It was a general assembly of the village
  • Urar: They were the landholders in the village entrusted with the upkeep of temples and maintenance of the tanks.
  • Agraharams: It was the gathering of adult men in Brahmin villages. 
• Village council: Each village was divided into thirty wards, and each was to nominate its members to the village council. 
  • The qualifications to become a ward member were: 
    • Ownership of at least one-fourth veli of the land. 
    • own residence. 
    • Above thirty years and below seventy years of age. 
    • Knowledge of Vedas. 
  • However, certain norms of disqualification were also mentioned in the inscriptions. They were: 
    • Had been members of the commitee for the past three years. 
    • failed to submit accounts as committee members. 
    • Committed sins
    • stolen the property of others. 
  • Kudavolai system was the system of nominating the persons for each ward for a year. 
  • Division of wards into six variyams: samvatsaravariyam, erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon variyam and puravuvari variyam. 
  • Variyapperumakkal: They were the committee members who usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions. 

Military Administration

• Military composition: 
  • Cavalry: kudirai sevagar 
  • Elephant corps: anaiyatka
  • Bowmen: villaligal
  • Sword-bearers: valilar
  • Spearmen: konduvar
• Other terms related to military administration
  • Nilaipadai: Military outposts in the conquered territory. 
  • Nayagam: The captain of a regiment, and later he assumed the title of padaimudali. 
  • Senapati and dandanayagam: The commanderin- chief.
  • Kaikkolaperumdai: Royal troops.
  • Velaikkarar: A personal troop to defend the king. 
  • Kadagams and padaividu: Army and military cantonments. 

Economy 

Agriculture

• Expansion of agriculture: It was the period of the expansion of agriculture that led to the production of food grain surplus. 
  • Valangai: Group of agricultural castes.
  • Kudi neekki: The local peasants

Revenue

• Revenue collection: They undertook extensive land surveys and revenue settlements. Cholas did the collection of land tax out of the agrarian surplus for its revenue.
  • The tax rates were fixed depending on the soil's fertility and the landholder's status.
• Exemption: Temples and Brahmins were exempted from paying taxes.
• Various taxes: Irai, kanikadan, iraikattina-kanikadan and kadami. 
  • Kudimai: A tax paid by the cultivating tenants to the government and the landlords, the bearers of honorific titles such as udaiyan, araiyan and kilavar. 
  • Opati: It was levied and collected by the king and local chiefs. 
  • Iraikattina-nellu: tax paid in kind.
• Related terms: 
  • Puravuvari-tinaikkalam: Department of land revenue (chief - puravuvari-tinaikkalanayagam).
  • Naduvagaiseykira: The surveyors of the land, who were from the landholding communities. 
  • Units of the land measurement: kuli, ma, veli, patti, padagam, etc. 
  • kalam: Unit for collecting paddy as a tax (28 kg).

Irrigation

• Measures: Cholas undertook measures to improve the irrigation system that was in practice. 
  • They practiced the turn system for distributing the water. 
• Vativaykkal: 
  • It was a criss-cross channel, a traditional way of harnessing rainwater in the Kavery delta. 
  • Vati is a drainage channel (in the north-south direction), and a vaykkal is a supply channel (in the east-west direction). 
    • Uttamacholavaykkal, Panca-vanamadevi-vaykkal and Ganavathy-vaykkal: Canals named after kings, queens and gods. 
    • Ur-vaykkal: Canal owned jointly by the landowners. 
    • Nattu-vaykkal: Nadu level canals. 
• Irrigation tanks: Cholavaridhi, Kaliyaneri, Vairamegatataka and Rajendra Cholaperiyaeri. 
  • Ainutruvapperari was an irrigation tank constructed by Valanciyar, a group of traders in Pudukottai.

Water Management

• Water rights: They had a system of assigning different kinds of water rights. 
  • Land transactions in the form of donations and endowments were also accompanied by water rights. 
• Practice of free labour: The practice of free labour for the periodic and seasonal maintenance of the irrigation tanks was prevalent.
  • Vetti and Amanji: Forms of free labour related to public works at the village level.
• Related terms: 
  • Nirkkiintavaru: It relates to the allotment of water.
  • Kumizh and talaivay: Channels and gateways for releasing the water. 
  • Talaivayar, Talaivay-chanrar and Eri-araiyarkal: They were the groups responsible for releasing the water through the head channel and sluice from the rivers or tanks.
  • Kulattar: They are a group of people in charge of kulam. 
  • Ernakulam: Commonly owned village tank (our tank).
  • Eriayam: A tax collected by village assemblies, which was utilised for repairing irrigation tanks. 

Artisanal activities

• Development of weaving industry: The weaving industry, particularly the silk weaving at Kanchi, flourished. 
  • Idangai: Artisanal and trading caste groupings.
• The metal works developed owing to the great demand for images for temples and utensils. 

Trade

• Increased trade: Increased production in agriculture and artisanal activities led to the growth in trade. 
• Terms related to traders:
  • Garveras and Gaudas/ Gavundas: Trading castes.
  • Anjuvannattar: They were maritime traders comprising West Asians, including Jews, Christians and Muslims, who settled along the port towns of the West coast. 
  • Manigramattar: They were traders in the hinterland and settled in interior towns like Kodumbalur, Uraiyur, Kovilpatti, Piranmalai and others. 
    • Ainutruvar, disai-ayirattu-ainutruvar and valanciyar: Common banner for Anjuvannattar and Manigramattar after both merged. 
• Maritime trade centres: Munai-santai (Pudukkottai), Mylapore and Tiruvotriyur (Chennai), Nagapattinam, Vishakapattinam and Krishnapattinam (south Nellore).
  • Peruvazhis: Trunk roads.  
• Items of export: Sandalwood, ebony, condiments, precious gems, pepper, oil, paddy, grains and salt. 
• Items of import: Camphor, copper, tin, mercury, etc.