Articles on 3 October 2025

by Vajiram & Ravi - 3 October 2025

Vajiram & Ravi provides Daily articles for 3 October 2025, tailored for aspirants. We cover all relevant news and events crucial for the exam, ensuring you stay updated & well-prepared.

UPSC Daily Quiz 3 October 2025

October 3, 2025
UPSC Daily Quiz

The Daily UPSC Quiz by Vajiram & Ravi is a thoughtfully curated initiative designed to support UPSC aspirants in strengthening their current affairs knowledge and core conceptual understanding. Aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, this daily quiz serves as a revision resource, helping candidates assess their preparation, revise key topics, and stay updated with relevant issues. Whether you are preparing for Prelims or sharpening your revision for Mains, consistent practice with these Daily UPSC Quiz can significantly enhance accuracy, speed, and confidence in solving exam-level questions.

[WpProQuiz 85]

UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Socialist Economy, Types, Features, Advantages, Disadvantages

October 3, 2025
Socialist Economy

A socialist economy is an economic system where goods and services are produced primarily for the use and collective welfare, rather than for profit, unlike a capitalist economy that prioritises profit generation. In socialism, production is directed towards meeting community needs, making sure equitable distribution of resources and minimizing class distinctions. The factors of production include land, labour, capital and enterprises are collectively owned under the control of the state. The ultimate goal is to maximise community owned wealth and promote equality across society. In this article, we are going to cover Socialist Economy, its features, types and advantages and disadvantages.

Socialist Economy

A Socialist Economy is the one where the state or community owns and manages the most important industries and resources. The government controls labour, capital goods and raw materials meaning factories, machinery and money that is collectively owned. The system makes sure that all citizens, based on the principle of equal rights, share in the nation’s economic progress. The production decisions are driven by social needs rather than profit and this set up is known as command economy. Unlike capitalism, private enterprises cannot freely produce goods and services. Instead, central planning authorities determine what, how and how much to produce. The goal is equitable wealth distribution, ensuring reduced income inequality and universal access to basic necessities such as food, shelter, education, and healthcare. This stood opposed to the capitalist system, where the goal was profit and individual ownership. Though no country follows a completely “pure” socialist model, nations like China, North Korea, and Cuba exhibit strong socialist features in their economies.

Socialism Economy Evolution

  • Socialism originated in the 19th century with the publication of The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 1840s.
  • The ideas challenged capitalist exploitation and proposed a new economic order that focused on community ownership and equality.
  • Many nations adopted socialist principles in different forms, laying the foundation for welfare economies, centrally planned models and mixed economies that blend socialism with elements of capitalism.

Socialist Economy Features

The features of socialist economy includes:

  1. Collective Ownership of Resources
     The backbone of socialism lies in state ownership of resources. Industries like mines, and factories are owned by the state, making sure that production benefits the society at large. While small-scale farms or trading may remain privately owned, the overall structure eliminates concentration of wealth in a few hands.
  2. Centralized Economic Planning
    A planning authority or central committee regulates production, allocation, and investment. Decisions on what to produce and how to allocate resources are aligned with national socio-economic objectives, unlike in capitalism where the market determines the choices.
  3. Limited Consumer Choice
     Citizens are provided basic needs like food, clothing, and housing, but they have limited choices. Unlike in a free market, they select from government-provided goods. Similarly, employment is guaranteed, though individuals may not freely choose professions.
  4. Equality in Income Distribution
    The main objective of socialism is to reduce the wealth gap. By preventing unchecked accumulation of wealth, the system narrows differences between rich and poor. Public services like healthcare, education, and housing are universally accessible.
  5. Absence of Market Forces
     Production is determined not by demand-supply dynamics but by social needs. Prices are fixed by planning authorities through a system called managed pricing, aligning production with welfare goals rather than profit motives.

Socialism Types

Socialism is of the following types: 

  • Democratic Socialism : Goods are distributed by elected representatives with welfare objectives.
  • Revolutionary Socialism: Advocates a complete overthrow of capitalism, not necessarily through violence.
  • Libertarian Socialism: Stresses equality across race, religion, and class with emphasis on personal freedoms.
  • Fabian Socialism: A peaceful, gradual adoption of socialist principles, historically seen in Britain.
  • Utopian Socialism: Aims for social harmony and equality through industrial and collective efforts.
  • Christian Socialism: it is inspired by religious teachings, emphasizing brotherhood and collective welfare.
  • Green Socialism: Prioritizes environmental conservation alongside social equity.
  • Market Socialism: Allows workers to manage production and distribute profits fairly, while retaining socialist values.

Socialist Economy Advantages

  • Equity and Welfare: A Socialist Economy provides universal access to healthcare, housing, and education reduces poverty.
  • Income Equality: Wealth distribution in a socialist economy is more balanced compared to capitalism.
  • Stability: Central planning helps reduce economic fluctuations and provides employment security.
  • Strong Public Services: Healthcare, education, and welfare schemes are state-funded.
  • Collective Decision-Making: Policies are framed with community interest at the forefront.

Socialist Economy Disadvantages

Socialist Economy has the following disadvantages:

  • Lack of Innovation:  Absence of competition in a socialist economy often discourages creativity and technological progress.
  • Bureaucratic Inefficiencies: Central planning can be slow and cumbersome in a socialist economy.
  • Restricted Consumer Choice : The Socialist Economy offers a limited variety of goods and services.
  • Limited Entrepreneurship : Few incentives for individuals to innovate or take risks.
  • Inefficient Resource Allocation : State ownership can sometimes lead to waste.
  • Reduced Individual Freedom : Citizens have less autonomy in economic choices.

A socialist economy aims to achieve collective prosperity, social justice, and equality, contrasting with capitalist structures driven by profit. While it provides universal access to essential services and reduces income disparity, it often struggles with inefficiency and lack of innovation. For UPSC aspirants, socialism is not only an economic concept but also a lens to understand state policies, welfare schemes, and global ideological shifts.

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Socialist Economy FAQs

Q1: What is meant by socialist economy?

Ans: A socialist economy is an economic system where resources and means of production are collectively or state-owned to ensure equality and welfare.

Q2: Who is the father of the socialist economy?

Ans: Karl Marx is regarded as the father of the socialist economy for his theories on socialism and communism.

Q3: Is India a socialist economy?

Ans: India is a mixed economy with both socialist and capitalist features, as reflected in its Constitution and economic policies.

Q4: Who introduced socialism in India?

Ans: Socialism in India was popularized by leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia through policies and ideologies.

Q5: Which type of economy is India?

Ans: India has a mixed economy, combining elements of socialism (state welfare and public sector) and capitalism (private enterprises and markets).

Shimla Agreement 1972, History, Objectives, Clauses, Download PDF

October 3, 2025
Shimla Agreement

The Indo-Pak War of 1971 significantly affected the political history of the region with the emergence of Bangladesh as an independent nation. Marked by the largest military surrender since World War II, the war concluded on December 16, 1971, with the capitulation of over 93,000 Pakistani troops in Dhaka, then part of East Pakistan. This conflict, its resolution, and the subsequent Shimla Agreement 1972, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi announced a unilateral ceasefire, signaling India’s intent to restore peace in the region.

Shimla Agreement 1972

Shimla Agreement 1972 was signed on 2nd July 1972 in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh which marked a significant diplomatic turning point in the aftermath of the Indo-Pak War 1971. In a joint commitment to end the issues, the Governments of India and Pakistan pledged to resolve future disputes through peaceful, bilateral dialogue, with mutual respect for each other’s sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Shimla Agreement Signing

The Shimla Agreement 1972 was formally signed by Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who served as the President of Pakistan at the time and later became its Prime Minister. The summit held in Shimla, the capital of Himachal Pradesh, was a crucial moment where both leaders engaged in bilateral discussions aimed at establishing peaceful relations and ensuring long-term stability in the region following the Indo-Pak War 1971.

Shimla Agreement 1972 Objective

  1. India aimed to find a lasting solution to the Kashmir conflict and ensure that Pakistan would not involve third parties in discussions related to Kashmir.
  2. The Shimla Agreement 1972 was seen as a chance to reset India-Pakistan relations, with Pakistan acknowledging the new balance of power post the 1971 war.
  3. The Agreement aimed to achieve strategic goals without creating resentment in Pakistan.

Simla Agreement 1972 PDF

The Simla Agreement 1972 is a landmark diplomatic agreement between India and Pakistan, signed in the aftermath of the Indo-Pak War 1971, which led to the creation of Bangladesh. Click on the link below to download Simla Agreement 1972 PDF.

Simla Agreement 1972 PDF

Shimla Agreement 1972 Key Clauses

The Shimla Agreement 1972 includes clauses to normalise relations between India and Pakistan following the war, aligning with the principles and objectives of the United Nations Charter. Both nations committed to establish peaceful coexistence, mutual respect, and cooperation.

Diplomatic and Public Communication Measures

  1. Both governments agreed to take necessary steps to restrict hostile propaganda and instead promote information that would encourage friendly relations between the two countries. 
  2. To rebuild mutual trust, efforts were to be made to restore communication channels such as postal services, telegraph links, air routes, and border check-posts. 
  3. The agreement also encouraged initiatives to facilitate cross-border travel for the citizens of both nations, thereby enhancing people-to-people ties.

Economic, Scientific, Cultural Cooperation

  1. Both countries aimed to resume trade and economic collaboration, and extend cooperation into areas such as science and culture.
  2. Exchanges in academic knowledge and cultural heritage were seen as key tools to improve bilateral relations.

Military and Territorial Arrangements

  1. A central clause of the agreement required Indian and Pakistani forces to withdraw to their respective sides of the international border.
  2. The Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir, as established following the December 17, 1971 ceasefire, was to be respected by both sides without damage to the final settlement of the issue.
  3. Both nations pledged to refrain from the use of force or the threat thereof in any manner that would disturb the LoC.

Implementation and Future Dialogue

  1. The withdrawal of troops was to begin immediately after the agreement entered into force and was to be completed within 30 days.
  2. The agreement would be effective from the date when Instruments of Ratification were exchanged, in accordance with each country’s constitutional processes.
  3. Regular diplomatic engagement was agreed upon, with representatives from both sides to meet periodically to discuss further approaches for peace, including the release of prisoners of war (POWs), restoration of full diplomatic relations, and resolution of outstanding issues, particularly Jammu and Kashmir.
  4. It was also decided that heads of government from both nations would meet at mutually convenient times to continue the peace process.

Shimla Agreement FAQs

Q1: What is the significance of the 1972 Simla Agreement?

Ans: The Shimla Agreement 1972 marked a commitment between India and Pakistan to resolve issues peacefully through bilateral dialogue, establishing the Line of Control in Kashmir.

Q2: What are the main points of the Simla Agreement?

Ans: The Shimla Agreement 1972 emphasized peaceful dispute resolution, respect for territorial integrity, bilateral talks, LoC recognition in Kashmir, return of prisoners, and restoration of diplomatic relations.

Q3: What was the agreement of the Shimla Convention?

Ans: The Shimla Convention 1914 was an agreement between British India, Tibet, and China, defining boundaries and affirming Tibetan autonomy under Chinese suzerainty.

Q4: What was the Shimla Agreement 1906?

Ans: There was no Shimla Agreement in 1906. You might be referring to the Simla Deputation of 1906, or the Shimla Agreement of 1972 between India and Pakistan.

Q5: What were the main points of Simla deputation in 1906?

Ans: The Simla Deputation of 1906 demanded separate electorates for Muslims, protection of their rights, and greater representation in government jobs and councils from the British.

REDD and REDD Plus, Objectives, Benefits, Features, Impact

October 3, 2025
REDD and REDD Plus

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is a United Nations initiative introduced to help developing countries to reduce forest loss and degradation. By putting a measurable economic value on the carbon stored in forests, REDD aims to control greenhouse gas emissions while promoting sustainable forest management and development. Its expanded framework, REDD+, includes conservation, sustainable forest management, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks, highlighting its important role in climate change mitigation and sustainable development. In this article, we are going to cover REDD and REDD+, its history, objectives, mechanisms and impact along with its contribution in environmental sustainability, community livelihoods and global climate goals. 

REDD and REDD Plus

The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD Programme) was launched in 2008. It combines the technical expertise of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

The development goal of REDD is twofold: to reduce forest emissions and enhance carbon stocks in developing countries, while simultaneously contributing to national sustainable development objectives. REDD was created with the aim that deforestation and forest degradation contribute highly to global greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for approximately 10–15% of annual carbon emissions.

REDD Objectives

REDD was established to fulfill the following objectives: 

  1. Reduce Deforestation and Degradation: Lower the rates of deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries,hence reducing carbon emissions.
  2. Enhance Carbon Stocks: Promote sustainable management of forests, afforestation, reforestation, and improved forest management practices to increase carbon storage.
  3. Support Sustainable Development : Integrate environmental, social, and economic considerations in forest management to align with national development goals.
  4. Financial Incentives: Set up mechanisms that reward measurable emissions reductions, making forest conservation economically viable.
  5. Strengthen Institutional Capacity: Improve the ability of developing countries to monitor, report, and govern forests effectively.

REDD Financial Mechanisms

REDD creates a system through which developing countries receive financial rewards for verified emissions reductions associated with reduced forest conversion and degradation. By assessing current or projected deforestation rates, countries that successfully implement remedial actions can earn results-based payments tied to the volume of emissions avoided.

This approach shows that forest conservation can compete with traditionally profitable land uses, such as agriculture or logging, by assigning monetary value to carbon sequestration. Through REDD, forests are recognized not merely as timber resources but as important carbon sinks that play a vital role in climate regulation. The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally led REDD+ processes and emphasizes the meaningful participation of indigenous peoples and forest-dependent communities, making sure that local stakeholders have a voice in decision-making and implementation.

Initial Focus of REDD

REDD initially focused solely on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, which together account for a big portion of global greenhouse gas emissions. The approach was primarily preventive, targeting the reduction of destructive activities while promoting long-term carbon stock management.

The Bali Action Plan (2007)

The Bali Action Plan, introduced at COP-13 of the UNFCCC in 2007, emphasized that mitigating climate change in developing countries should include “policy approaches and positive incentives” for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. This plan laid the foundation for integrating REDD into the broader UN climate framework.

REDD+ Expansion

By 2008-2009, REDD’s scope was expanded to REDD+, which recognizes the importance of a holistic approach to forest management. REDD+ incorporates:

  1. Forest Conservation: Maintaining existing forests to protect carbon stocks and biodiversity.
  2. Sustainable Forest Management: Implementing practices that balance forest utilization with ecological preservation.
  3. Enhancement of Forest Carbon Stocks: Increasing carbon sequestration by afforestation, reforestation, and improved management.

The Cancun Agreements at COP-16 in 2010 formally recognized these expanded components, making REDD+ a comprehensive mechanism to support climate change mitigation while simultaneously promoting sustainable development and local livelihoods.

REDD+ Features

The important features of REDD+ include:

  • Results-Based Payments: Developing countries receive financial incentives for verified emissions reductions.
  • Integration of Conservation Goals: REDD+ not only focuses on emission reductions but also ecosystem preservation and biodiversity protection.
  • Community and Livelihood Benefits: Emphasizes the co-benefits of REDD+ for local communities, such as food security, employment, and sustainable resource management.
  • Global Climate Contribution: Supports international commitments under the UNFCCC and aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

REDD+ Components

REDD+ includes five primary activities:

  1. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation: Preventing the clearing of forests for agriculture, logging, or other land uses.
  2. Reducing Emissions from Forest Degradation: Limits unsustainable logging or resource extraction practices.
  3. Conservation of Forest Carbon Stocks: Maintaining existing carbon-rich forests and protecting ecosystems.
  4. Sustainable Management of Forests: Balancing forest use with regeneration and ecological health.
  5. Enhancement of Forest Carbon Stocks: Promoting afforestation, reforestation, and improved management techniques to increase carbon capture.
  6. Through these activities, REDD+ contributes to climate mitigation, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development, creating a multi-faceted global environmental tool.

REDD+ Benefits

REDD+ provides many environmental, social, and economic benefits:

  • Climate Change Mitigation: By preventing deforestation and promoting reforestation, REDD+ reduces greenhouse gas emissions and strengthens carbon sinks.
  • Poverty Alleviation: Provides alternative livelihoods and financial incentives to forest-dependent communities.
  • Biodiversity Conservation: Protects habitats, species, and ecosystem services.
  • Sustainable Resource Management: Promotes long-term planning and responsible forest utilization.
  • Integration with Development Goals: Supports national strategies for sustainable development, food security, and climate adaptation.

Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF)

The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) is a global partnership of governments, civil society, private sector actors, and indigenous peoples focused on REDD+ implementation.

Objectives of FCPF

  1. Capacity Building: Provide financial and technical support to countries to prepare for REDD+ implementation.
  2. Performance-Based Payments: Provides a system where results-based actions receive payments, ensuring equitable benefit sharing.
  3. Sustain Community Livelihoods: Integrate conservation with local development needs.
  4. Knowledge Dissemination: Share lessons from REDD+ readiness and implementation through Readiness Preparation Proposals (RPPs) and Emission Reduction Programs (ERPs).

Structure of FCPF

The FCPF operates through two complementary funding mechanisms:

  • Readiness Fund: Supports countries in preparing for REDD+ implementation.
  • Carbon Fund: Provides results-based payments for verified emissions reductions.

Participants in FCPF are categorized as:

  1. REDD+ Country Participants: Tropical and subtropical countries implementing REDD+.
  2. Donor Participants: Governments or organizations funding the Readiness Fund.
  3. Carbon Fund Participants: Contributors to the Carbon Fund for results-based payments.
  4. The Participants Assembly (PA) and Participants Committee (PC) oversee decisions and governance of the FCPF.

Role of the World Bank

The World Bank, along with the Inter-American Development Bank, UNDP, and FAO, acts as a delivery partner under the Readiness Fund, providing technical and capacity-building support to participating countries. These institutions facilitate REDD+ readiness, policy design, and implementation, making sure that REDD+ strategies are aligned with national priorities and local contexts.

REDD and REDD+ Impact

The combined initiatives of REDD and REDD+ have the following outcomes:

  • Reduced Deforestation Rates: Many developing countries have slowed forest loss through incentives, monitoring, and enforcement.
  • Enhanced Carbon Sequestration: Forest regeneration and sustainable management have increased carbon stocks.
  • Improved Livelihoods: Local communities benefit economically through payments, employment, and sustainable resource use.
  • Biodiversity Protection: Forest ecosystems have been preserved, safeguarding species and critical habitats.
  • Global Climate Contribution: REDD+ contributes directly to the UNFCCC goals and indirectly to multiple SDGs, including climate action, life on land, and poverty reduction.

By creating a market value for carbon stored in forests, REDD+ demonstrates how environmental conservation can align with economic incentives, bridging the gap between development and sustainability.

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REDD and REDD Plus FAQs

Q1: What is the difference between REDD and REDD+?

Ans: REDD focuses on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, while REDD+ also includes forest conservation, sustainable management, and enhancement of carbon stocks.

Q2: What is the REDD+ program (UPSC)?

Ans: REDD+ is a UNFCCC mechanism that provides financial incentives to developing countries for reducing forest emissions and promoting sustainable forest management.

Q3: When was REDD and REDD+ established?

Ans: REDD was launched in 2008, and REDD+ was formally recognized under the Cancun Agreements at COP-16 in 2010.

Q4: What are the objectives of REDD?

Ans: To reduce deforestation and degradation, enhance carbon stocks, support sustainable development, provide financial incentives, and strengthen forest governance in developing countries.

Q5: When was REDD adopted?

Ans: REDD was adopted in 2008 through the UN-REDD Programme.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

October 3, 2025
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is an important international treaty that discusses the pressing issue of land degradation and its associated impacts on ecosystems, human livelihoods, and global climate stability. Adopted in 1994 and entering into force in 1996, UNCCS remains the only legally binding international agreement dedicated exclusively to combating desertification, land degradation, and drought (DLDD). In this article, we are going to cover the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, its objectives, features and outcomes. 

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

The UNCCD was introduced by the recommendations of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit (UNCED), where Agenda 21 highlighted the growing dangers of desertification and called for a global response. Adopted in Paris on 17 June 1994 and entering into force in December 1996, it was designed to provide countries with a cooperative platform to address land degradation through sustainable land management.

Unlike other Rio Conventions like the UNFCCC and CBD (biodiversity) the UNCCD was born out of the specific demand from African nations, who were very much affected by recurrent droughts and expanding desertification. At present, however, its relevance extends far beyond Africa, with regions across Asia, Latin America, and even developed countries dealing with soil erosion, declining fertility, and extreme droughts.

The principles of participation, partnership, and decentralisation form the backbone of the UNCCD. Its framework prioritises bottom-up approaches, encouraging community participation, involvement of local stakeholders, and inclusion of indigenous practices in combating land degradation. 

UNCCD is not just important due to its legal force but also its holistic approach. It blends environmental protection with socio-economic development, placing affected communities at the centre of solutions. With 197 parties, the UNCCD has a near-universal membership, making it one of the most inclusive environmental agreements ever adopted. To raise awareness, the UN declared 2006 as the International Year of Deserts and Desertification. 

UNCCD Objectives

The UNCCD covers many objectives that link environmental sustainability with human development. The major goals include:

  • Forging Global Partnerships: To reverse and prevent desertification and land degradation through collective action.
  • Mitigating the Effects of Drought: Supporting countries and communities in drought-prone regions to become resilient.
  • Poverty Reduction: Recognising that land degradation and drought exacerbate poverty, the Convention aims to link land restoration with improved livelihoods.
  • Environmental Sustainability: Make sure that strategies to combat desertification contribute to biodiversity conservation, water security, and food production.

UNCCD Key Features and Framework 

The UNCCD is different because it provides a legally binding global framework to address desertification and drought. Its structure includes:

  • Global Framework: Sets international goals and fosters cooperation.
  • National and Regional Action: Obligates countries to prepare National Action Programmes (NAPs), with regional and sub-regional coordination mechanisms.
  • Reporting and Monitoring: Countries must submit regular progress reports to the Conference of the Parties (COP).

Obligations of Member States

Parties to the UNCCD are bound by many important obligations:

  1. Develop National Action Programs (NAPs) tailored to their specific ecological, social, and economic conditions.
  2. Integrate Policies related to land degradation into broader development, agriculture, and water strategies.
  3. Support Research and Capacity Building to understand and mitigate the causes of desertification.
  4. Developed nations have to extend financial and technical aid to developing and drought-affected countries.
  5. Regular Reporting to the COP on progress and challenges.

National Action Programmes (NAPs)

NAPs are the cornerstone of UNCCD implementation. Each member state designs these strategies to combat desertification at the national level. Key elements of NAPs include:

  • Land Degradation Assessments: Identifying the scale and drivers of land loss.
  • Policy and Institutional Reforms: Setting up frameworks for sustainable land management (SLM).
  • Sustainable Practices: Promotes soil conservation, afforestation, efficient irrigation, and climate-smart agriculture.
  • Community Participation: Keeps farmers, pastoralists, women, and indigenous groups central to planning and implementation.
  • Monitoring Systems: Establishing indicators to track progress.

Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)

A major conceptual advance under the UNCCD is the adoption of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN).

  • LDN means achieving a balance where the loss of productive land is offset by restoration of degraded areas, keeping the total amount and quality of productive land stable or improving over time.
  • Since land is finite and under increasing pressure from population growth and industrialisation, LDN offers a way to ensure sustainable use.
  • Benefits includes: 
    • Supports food security and ecosystem services.
    • Reduces risks of migration, poverty, and conflict over land.
    • Provides a framework for climate change mitigation through soil carbon storage.
  • Over 120 countries are engaged in the LDN Target-Setting Programme, aligning their national strategies with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

COPs and Global Outcomes

  • COP14 – Delhi Declaration (2019)
      • The Delhi Declaration discusses the urgency of land restoration and pitches improved land access, gender-sensitive initiatives, and stronger global action.
  • COP15 – Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire (2022)
    • With the theme “Land. Life. Legacy: From scarcity to prosperity”, COP15 produced several landmark outcomes:
    • Global Pledge: Restoration of one billion hectares of degraded land by 2030.
    • Established to shift the focus from reactive crisis management to proactive drought preparedness.
    • Key Declarations:
      • Abidjan Call for long-term sustainability.
      • Abidjan Declaration on Gender Equality in land restoration.
      • Land, Life, and Legacy Declaration responding to the Global Land Outlook 2 report.
  • “Drought in Numbers 2022” Report: Called for prioritising drought preparedness as extreme weather events intensify globally.

UNCCD and Climate Change

Desertification and climate change are deeply interconnected:

  • Mutually Reinforcing: Climate change accelerates desertification through rising temperatures and droughts, while desertification releases stored soil carbon, worsening climate change.
  • Complementing Global Agreements: The UNCCD works in synergy with the Paris Agreement, as land restoration boosts carbon sequestration and resilience.
  • Sustainable Land Management (SLM): Practices such as afforestation, agroforestry, and soil conservation help capture carbon, reduce erosion, and strengthen community resilience.
  • LDN as Climate Strategy: Achieving LDN directly contributes to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Impact

The UNCCD has environmental, socio-economic and global impact: 

  • Environmental Impact
    • Encouraged reforestation and sustainable agricultural practices worldwide.
    • Contributed to the protection of biodiversity and improved water security.
  • Socio-Economic Impact
    • Linked land restoration with poverty reduction, as healthy land improves agricultural yields and income.
    • Strengthened local governance by promoting community participation.
  • Global Governance
    • Demonstrated the importance of multi-stakeholder partnerships that combine governments, NGOs, scientific communities, and indigenous groups.
    • Established land as a central issue within sustainable development and global negotiations.
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United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) FAQs

Q1: What is the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)?

Ans: It is a 1994 legally binding international agreement aimed at combating desertification, land degradation, and drought.

Q2: Is India a member of the UNCCD?

Ans: Yes, India is a member of the UNCCD and has hosted COP14 in 2019.

Q3: In which country is the UNCCD COP held?

Ans: The COP of UNCCD is held in different member countries on a rotational basis.

Q4: When was UNCCD adopted?

Ans: The UNCCD was adopted in Paris in 1994 and came into force in 1996.

Q5: What is the objective of UNCCD?

Ans: Its objective is to achieve land degradation neutrality through sustainable land and water management.

Vienna Convention on Protection of Ozone Layer, Objectives, Details

October 3, 2025
Vienna Convention on Protection of Ozone Layer

The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was adopted in 1985, as an important framework in international environmental cooperation. It was one of the first global treaties to address an environmental issue on the basis of scientific evidence and precaution, even before the full scale of the crisis was visible. By uniting the international community against the threat of ozone depletion, the Convention laid the foundation for subsequent agreements, particularly the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987), which is considered as the most successful environmental treaty in history. In this article, we are going to cover the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, its historical importance, objectives and provisions.

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer represents international environmental diplomacy. By setting up a global framework for cooperation, it paved the way for the Montreal Protocol and subsequent successes in phasing out ozone-depleting substances. Its achievements extend beyond ozone recovery, encompassing public health improvements, biodiversity protection, and climate mitigation. Above all, the Convention acts as a reminder that collective global action, guided by science and precaution, can reverse even the gravest environmental threats. As the world grapples with challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution, the Vienna Convention stands as a treaty of hope and a model of how humanity can unite to protect the planet.

Ozone Layer

The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere about 10-50 km above the Earth’s surface. It is rich in ozone molecules (O₃). This thin but important shield absorbs the majority of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation, which, if unchecked, can cause skin cancers, cataracts, immune system suppression, and damage to crops and marine ecosystems.

By the mid-20th century, however, scientific studies showed that human activities like the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) were causing important thinning of this protective layer. The most visible manifestation of this was the Antarctic ozone hole, first detected in the early 1980s.The alarming evidence galvanized scientists, policymakers, and civil society groups, ultimately leading to the negotiation of the Vienna Convention.

Vienna Convention Adoption Historical Background 

The adoption of the Vienna Convention was rooted in the evolution of scientific understanding. This included: 

  • 1974 Breakthrough: Chemists Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland published a seminal paper showing how CFCs, used in refrigeration and aerosols, could migrate to the stratosphere, break down under UV light, and release chlorine atoms. These chlorine atoms acted as catalysts, destroying ozone molecules in big quantities.
  • Late 1970s-Early 1980s: Continuous research confirmed the harmful link between man-made chemicals and ozone depletion. Alarm peaked when British scientists reported the dramatic thinning of ozone over Antarctica.
  • 1985 Helsinki Meeting: In response to growing scientific consensus, an international gathering of scientists and policymakers discussed the risks of ozone depletion. This meeting generated momentum for a formal legal instrument.
  • 22 March 1985: The Vienna Convention was formally adopted in Vienna, Austria, under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It came into force in 1988 and was ratified by nearly all UN member states, showing rare and almost universal global consensus. The Convention was the first international environmental treaty to address a global atmospheric issue based on precaution rather than waiting for irreversible damage.

Vienna Convention Objectives

The Vienna Convention was not a regulatory treaty but a framework agreement. Its primary aim was to create an environment where countries could collaborate, exchange knowledge, and eventually develop binding obligations to protect the ozone layer. The objectives included:

  1. Promoting International Cooperation: Establishing systematic observations, monitoring, and research on the ozone layer.
  2. Encouraging Information Sharing: Facilitating the exchange of scientific, legal, and technical information on ozone depletion and its impacts.
  3. Supporting Scientific Research: Advancing understanding of the chemical and physical processes affecting ozone.
  4. Encouraging National Measures: Urging states to adopt legislative or administrative actions to prevent ozone damage.
  5. Providing a Legal Basis: Preparing the ground for subsequent binding agreements, notably the Montreal Protocol.
  6. Raising Public Awareness: Enhancing recognition of the ozone layer’s importance and the dangers of its depletion.

Vienna Convention Key Provisions

The Vienna Convention is structured to provide clarity, cooperation, and flexibility. Key provisions of the Vienna Convention include:

  • Article 1: Establishes uniform definitions of important terms like “ozone layer” and “adverse effects,” providing consistency in interpretation.
  • Article 2: Motivates parties to cooperate in scientific research, monitoring, and data exchange, and to adopt measures for ozone protection.
  • Article 3: Encourages nations to strengthen systematic observations of the ozone layer and its interactions with human activities.
  • Article 4: Pushes the states to take precautionary steps even if scientific certainty is incomplete.
  • Article 5: Promotes advancement of knowledge and development of alternatives to harmful substances.
  • Article 6: Facilitates the sharing of scientific, technical, socio-economic, and commercial information.
  • Article 7: Requires parties to periodically report measures they have adopted.
  • Article 8: Provides mechanisms to support developing countries.
  • Article 9 & 10: Mandates regular meetings of the parties to evaluate progress and adapt the treaty to new scientific knowledge.

These provisions ensured that the Convention was dynamic, flexible, and adaptable and an important feature for dealing with a problem rooted in evolving scientific knowledge.

Vienna Convention Implementation Mechanisms

The effectiveness of the Vienna Convention is related to its implementation mechanisms. This includes:

  1. Monitoring and Reporting: Parties are required to submit regular reports on actions taken, providing accountability.
  2. UNEP’s Role: UNEP acts as the secretariat, providing technical and scientific expertise, facilitating negotiations, and coordinating research.
  3. Capacity Building: Developing countries receive technical assistance, funding, and training to improve monitoring and enforcement capabilities.
  4. Periodic Reviews: Meetings of the Conference of the Parties (COP) act as a platform for assessing progress and updating commitments.
  5. Flexibility and Evolution: The Convention anticipated the need for a stronger protocol, leading to the Montreal Protocol of 1987, which introduced legally binding obligations for phasing out ODS.

Vienna Convention Impact

The Vienna Convention, along with the Montreal Protocol, has many positive consequences:

Environmental Impact

  • Huge decline in the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances.
  • Early signs of ozone layer recovery, with projections suggesting a return to pre-1980 levels by the mid-21st century.
  • Reduced UV radiation at the Earth’s surface, safeguarding ecosystems, agriculture, and marine life.

Public Health Benefits

  • Reduced incidence of skin cancers and cataracts, which would have risen dramatically without ozone protection.
  • Protection of the human immune system from UV-induced suppression.

Climate Change Co-benefits

  • Many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases. Their phase-out has prevented substantial climate forcing, making the Vienna-Montreal framework a hidden but powerful contributor to climate change mitigation.
  • Studies estimate that these agreements have prevented emissions equivalent to hundreds of gigatonnes of CO₂.

Governance Model

  • The Convention showed the success of the “precautionary principle”, acting even before complete scientific certainty was achieved.
  • It set a precedent for global cooperation on transboundary environmental problems, influencing later agreements on climate change and biodiversity.

Vienna Convention Lessons

The Vienna Convention provides many lessons for current and future environmental challenges:

  1. Science-Policy Interface: Strong collaboration between scientists and policymakers is important for informed decision-making.
  2. Precautionary Principle: Waiting for absolute certainty can be disastrous and preventive action is more effective and less costly.
  3. Global Solidarity: Universal participation and equitable support for developing countries ensure widespread compliance.
  4. Flexibility: A framework approach that can evolve into binding protocols helps sustain momentum.
  5. Linkages Across Issues: Addressing one problem (ozone depletion) can simultaneously benefit others (climate change).
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Vienna Convention on Protection of Ozone Layer FAQs

Q1: What is the Vienna Convention on Protection of the ozone layer?

Ans: It is a 1985 international treaty that provides a global framework for cooperation to protect the ozone layer from depletion.

Q2: What is the main aim of the Vienna Convention?

Ans: Its main aim is to promote international collaboration in research, monitoring, and policy measures to safeguard the ozone layer.

Q3: What was the main aim of the Vienna Convention of 1985?

Ans: The 1985 Convention aimed to create a precautionary global framework for protecting the ozone layer and set the stage for binding agreements like the Montreal Protocol.

Q4: What was the impact of Vienna Convention?

Ans: It led to global cooperation, reduced ozone-depleting substances, initiated ozone layer recovery, and contributed to public health and climate protection.

Q5: What is the Ozone Layer?

Ans: The ozone layer is a region in the Earth’s stratosphere rich in ozone (O₃) that shields life by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

Rana Sanga [1482-1528], Administration, Father Name, Alliance, Death

October 3, 2025
Rana Sanga

Rana Sanga, also known as Maharana Sangram Singh, was one of the most powerful Rajput rulers of medieval India. He ruled over Mewar during the early 16th century and became a symbol of Rajput valor and resistance against foreign powers. His reign is remembered for military achievements, political alliances, and fierce battles, particularly against the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal forces. Rana Sanga’s legacy continues to inspire Indian historical memory.

Rana Sanga

Rana Sanga (1482-1528) was the king of Mewar and a leading figure among the Rajput rulers of his time. He expanded Mewar’s influence across North India and united several Rajput clans under his leadership. Despite being injured multiple times in battle, he displayed extraordinary courage and strategic brilliance. His defeat at the Battle of Khanwa against Babur in 1527 marked a turning point in Indian history, paving the way for Mughal dominance.

Rana Sanga Biography 

Rana Sanga’s life reflected both political ambition and heroic resistance. His biography is filled with stories of sacrifice, alliances, and power struggles. He was respected not only by his allies but also feared by his enemies. His leadership laid the foundation for Rajput unity during a period of immense political transformation in India.

Rana Sanga Biography
Aspect Description

Full Name

Maharana Sangram Singh I (Rana Sanga)

Birth

1482 CE

Dynasty

Sisodia Dynasty of Mewar

Capital

Chittorgarh

Reign

1508-1528 CE

Major Battle

Battle of Khanwa (1527 CE)

Death

1528 CE

Rana Sanga Physical Features

Rana Sanga was tall, strong, and had an imposing presence. During his early family disputes, his elder brother Prithviraj blinded one of his eyes to eliminate him from succession. Later, in battles against Delhi Sultanate and regional sultans, he lost an arm. Despite these injuries, Sanga continued to lead armies personally, displaying extraordinary courage. His scars became symbols of resilience and heroism in Rajput folklore and historical accounts.

Rana Sanga Family Dispute

Rana Sanga’s succession to the throne was not straightforward, as he faced disputes within his family. After the death of Rana Raimal (1473-1508 CE), a fierce struggle for the Mewar throne ensued. Prithviraj, the elder son, sought to secure power and even blinded Rana Sanga in one eye. Sanga fled to Ajmer for safety. Following Prithviraj’s death, Rana Sanga ascended the throne in 1508 CE, restoring Mewar’s power through military campaigns and uniting Rajput clans against neighboring sultans and emerging Mughal forces. Eventually, Rana Sanga overcame these rivalries with strong political maneuvering and military support. These disputes highlight the instability in Rajput families at the time, where succession wars were common.

Rana Sanga Mewar Dynasty

Rana Sanga belonged to the prestigious Sisodia Dynasty of Mewar, known for its valor and resistance against external powers. The dynasty had a long history of protecting Rajput honor and sovereignty. Under Sanga’s leadership, the Sisodias reached the height of their influence, commanding respect across North India. The dynasty’s traditions of bravery and sacrifice deeply influenced his policies, administration, and military campaigns, making him one of the most iconic rulers of Rajputana history.

Administration under Rana Sanga

Rana Sanga’s administration was based on Rajput traditions, emphasizing justice, loyalty, and protection of subjects. Agricultural reforms and fortification of cities like Chittorgarh strengthened his rule. Rana Sanga combined diplomacy and military strategy to protect and expand Mewar. During his rule, many neighboring kingdoms attempted to capture his territory, but he successfully defended it. Under his leadership, Mewar’s boundaries grew: North up to the Sutlej River (Punjab), South to the Narmada (after conquering Malwa), West to the Indus, and East to Bayana, Bharatpur, and Gwalior, reflecting his administrative and military acumen.

  • Reign: 1509 to 1527 CE
  • Expansion: Rajasthan, Punjab, Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh
  • Capital: Chittorgarh
  • Alliance: Formed Confederacy Alliance by uniting 120 Rajputs

Military Conquest of Rana Sanga

Rana Sanga’s military campaigns expanded Mewar’s territory and influence significantly. He defeated the Delhi Sultanate’s armies under Ibrahim Lodi multiple times and established supremacy in Rajasthan and Malwa. His tactics involved alliance-building, guerrilla strikes, and large-scale open battles. Despite heavy injuries, he personally commanded his troops.

Military Conquest of Rana Sanga
Battle Year Opponent Outcome Significance

Khatoli

1518

Ibrahim Lodi (Delhi Sultanate)

Rajput victory; Sanga lost an arm and eye

Weakened Delhi Sultanate

Dholpur

1519

Ibrahim Lodi with Malwa support

Rajput victory

Expanded Rajput control in Rajasthan

Idar

1520

Malik Hussain (Gujarat)

Rajput victory, Malik’s Gujarat army defeated

Secured Rajputana borders, looted wealth

Gagron

1519-20

Mahmud Khilji II (Malwa) & Asaf Khan (Gujarat)

Rajput victory; Sultan captured

Enhanced Sanga’s prestige with crown and belt

Rana Sanga’s War against Mughals

The most decisive conflict of Rana Sanga’s life was against Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire. Initially, he seized Bayana Fort, challenging Babur’s growing influence. However, his most significant battle was fought at Khanwa in 1527, where his large Rajput confederacy clashed with Babur’s modern army. Despite Rajput bravery, Babur’s superior artillery and Afghan defection shifted the tide. Khanwa’s outcome marked the rise of Mughal supremacy and ended the dream of a united Rajput-led North India.

Rana Sanga’s War against Mughals
Battle Year Opponent Location Outcome & Significance

Bayana

~1526-27

Nizam Khan (Afghan chief) & Babur indirectly

Bayana Fort, Rajasthan

Rajput victory; displayed siege tactics and territorial expansion

Khanwa

March 1527

Babur (Mughal Empire)

Near Agra, Uttar Pradesh

Mughal victory; Babur’s Tulughma tactics, artillery, and Afghan betrayal led to Sanga’s defeat

Chanderi

1528

Babur vs Rajputs

Present Day Ashoknagar, Madhya Pradesh

Decline of Rajput power

Rana Sanga’s Army

Rana Sanga’s army was considered one of the strongest Rajput forces of its time. It comprised around 80,000 cavalry, 500 war elephants, and a large infantry. His soldiers were trained in traditional Rajput warfare, emphasizing valor and close combat. Though powerful, his forces lacked modern artillery, which became a major disadvantage against Babur’s gunpowder weapons. Despite this, Sanga’s disciplined army was admired for loyalty and courage in the face of overwhelming odds.

Economy during Rana Sanga Reign

The economy of Mewar under Rana Sanga was primarily agrarian, relying on fertile plains and irrigation systems. Revenue came from agriculture, trade routes, and tributes from allied states. Chittorgarh became a hub of commerce. However, constant wars strained resources and disrupted stability. Despite challenges, Rana Sanga managed to sustain his economy, funding large armies and fortification projects. His reign showed the balance between economic growth and the cost of continuous warfare.

Political Landscape during Sanga’s Reign

Rana Sanga’s era witnessed political fragmentation in North India. The Delhi Sultanate was declining, Afghan chiefs were struggling, and new powers like the Mughals were emerging. Regional rulers included Medini Rai in Malwa, Ibrahim Lodi in Delhi, and Bahadur Shah in Gujarat.

Political Landscape and Contemporary Rulers during Rana’s Reign
Year Region Ruler Significance

1517

Delhi

Ibrahim Lodi

Defeated by Babur in 1526

1520s

Malwa

Medini Rai

Ally of Rana Sanga

1526

Central Asia/ India

Babur

Established Mughal power

Historical Sources of Rana’s Life

The life of Rana Sanga is documented through a mix of Mughal records, Rajput traditions, and later historical works. The Baburnama offers first-hand Mughal perspectives on his battles. Persian texts like Tarikh-i-Firishta and Ain-i-Akbari also mention him. Rajput bardic chronicles such as Rajprashasti Mahakavyam and regional inscriptions glorify his valor. Modern historians like Satish Chandra and R.C. Majumdar further analyzed his reign, blending contemporary evidence with later Rajput accounts.

Rana Sanga’s Alliance

Rana Sanga formed a powerful Rajput Confederacy to strengthen Mewar and resist external threats. This alliance included 7 kings, 9 chieftains, and 104 nobles, uniting the Rajput states under his leadership. The confederacy enabled coordinated military campaigns, territorial expansion, and defense against the Delhi Sultanate and emerging Mughals. However, these alliances often faced internal distrust.

Few of the notable alliances of Rana Sanga are:

Rana Sanga’s Alliance
Year Alliance Partner Purpose Outcome

1519

Medini Rai (Malwa)

Strengthen Rajput unity and secure Malwa borders

Successful; enhanced Rajput influence in central India

1520

Marwar (Raja of Jodhpur)

Consolidate Rajput support for northern campaigns

Strengthened military coordination against Delhi Sultanate

1520-26

Amber (Raja of Jaipur) & Ajmer

Build Rajput confederacy to resist foreign invasions

Unified Rajput clans under Sanga’s leadership

1526-27

Afghan chiefs in Bayana & Northern India

Counter Ibrahim Lodi and Babur’s influence

Temporary military support; helped capture Bayana Fort

1527

Rajput Confederacy at Khanwa

Confront Babur and defend Rajput territories

Defeated due to artillery advantage of Mughals and betrayal by some allie

Death of Rana Sanga

Rana Sanga died in 1528 under contested circumstances. Some accounts suggest he was poisoned to death while others cite illness. Although mostly accepted reason states- during his final confrontation with Babur, Rana Sanga was severely injured and taken unconscious from the battlefield by Prithviraj Singh I Kachwaha and Maldeo Rathore of Marwar. After regaining consciousness, he vowed not to return to Chittor until he defeated Babur and captured Delhi. However, due to resistance from his nobles who opposed another war, he was poisoned by nobles. His death marked the end of an era of Rajput resistance.

Succession After Rana Sanga

Following Rana Sanga’s death, his son Ratan Singh II ascended the throne of Mewar in 1528. The transition occurred during a period of instability, as Babur consolidated Mughal power after victories at Khanwa and Chanderi. Sanga’s vassals, including Medini Rai, faced Mughal conquests, with Rajput resistance severely weakened.

Rana Sanga UPSC

A recent controversy emerged after a political remark referred to Rana Sanga as a “traitor” claiming that Sanga had invited Babur to India, sparking strong reactions from Rajput groups such as the Karni Sena. The statement was perceived as undermining Sanga’s historical legacy, leading to protests and subsequent clashes with police in Agra. Historians largely dismiss the claim, emphasizing his opposition to Babur, especially at the Battle of Khanwa (1527 CE).

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Rana Sanga FAQs

Q1: Who was Rana Sanga?

Ans: Rana Sanga, also known as Maharana Sangram Singh, was a powerful Rajput ruler of Mewar (1482-1528 CE) renowned for uniting Rajput clans and resisting the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal invasions.

Q2: What were the major battles of Rana Sanga?

Ans: Rana Sanga fought key battles including Khatoli (1518), Dholpur (1519), Idar (1520), Gagron (1519-20), Bayana, and Khanwa (1527), showcasing Rajput valor and military strategy.

Q3: What were Rana Sanga’s Physical Features?

Ans: Rana Sanga, according to historical accounts, was tall, strong, and imposing, with one eye blinded by his brother and an arm lost in battle.

Q4: Who succeeded Rana Sanga?

Ans: After his death in 1528, Ratan Singh II became the ruler of Mewar, inheriting a kingdom weakened by battles against Babur and the Delhi Sultanate.

Q5: What were the political alliances of Rana Sanga?

Ans: Rana Sanga formed a Rajput confederacy with 7 kings, 9 chieftains, and 104 nobles, strengthening Mewar’s military and political position against neighboring sultans and the Mughal Empire.

Black Money, Meaning, Sources, Effects, Steps to Curb

October 3, 2025
Black Money

In economic theory, there is no single official definition of Black Money. Different terms are often used interchangeably with it, such as parallel economy, illegal economy, irregular economy, black incomes, and unaccounted economy. The simplest way to understand it: Black Money is income that is concealed from tax authorities and therefore escapes taxation and official accounting.

Black Money

There is no universally accepted definition of black money in economics. Broadly, it refers to income that is earned through illegitimate means or income that is concealed from tax authorities.

It represents unaccounted money on which due taxes have not been paid to the government. Black money is hidden from official records and does not figure in GDP estimates, national income, or other economic indicators.

It is important to note that counterfeit currency or spurious notes are not classified as Black Money, since they are illegally printed currency rather than unaccounted legitimate earnings.

Black Money Sources

Black Money in India mainly arises from two broad categories:

  • Illegal Activities
    • Includes income generated from activities such as smuggling, trafficking, corruption, bribery, extortion, and other unlawful trades.
    • Since these are criminal in nature, the earnings are never reported to tax authorities.
  • Legal but Unreported Activities
    • Incomes earned through legitimate means but deliberately concealed to evade taxes.
    • Examples: under-reporting business profits, inflating expenses, cash transactions without bills, property dealings in cash (benami transactions).

Black Money Effects

  • Loss of Revenue to the Exchequer
      • Reduces tax collection and widens the fiscal deficit.
      • To bridge this gap, the government may increase taxes, cut subsidies, or borrow more, leading to higher public debt.
      • Persistent deficits can force cuts in development expenditure.
  • Money Begets Money
      • Black Money is often parked in assets like gold, real estate, or foreign accounts.
      • It remains outside the formal economy and keeps circulating within a limited wealthy class.
      • This perpetuates concentration of wealth and denies broader economic benefits.
  • Higher Inflation and Inequality
    • Unaccounted money inflates demand for luxury goods and assets, driving up prices.
    • Inflation hits the poor hardest, reducing their purchasing power.
    • The gap between rich and poor widens, worsening socio-economic inequality.

Steps to Curb Black Money

To curb the menace of black money, India has adopted a mix of legislative measures and international cooperation mechanisms. Over the years, several laws have been enacted to prevent tax evasion, regulate benami transactions, and tackle money laundering. At the same time, India has signed global agreements to enable information exchange on undisclosed assets. The table below summarises the key measures:

Steps to Curb Black Money

Category

Act/Agreement

Key Provisions

Legislative Measures

Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018

Seizure of assets of offenders who flee India to avoid prosecution. Targets those refusing to return for legal proceedings.
 

Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST) Act, 2017

Ensures ease of compliance, widens tax base, and reduces tax evasion via input tax credit mechanism.
 

Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Amendment Act, 2016

Defines benami transactions (property held in another’s name). Provides for confiscation, special courts, appellate tribunals, and imprisonment up to 7 years.
 

Black Money (Undisclosed Foreign Income and Assets) and Imposition of Tax Act, 2015

Penalises concealment of foreign assets. Creates criminal liability for tax evasion. One-time disclosure window for residents.
 

Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002

Main law to tackle money laundering. Applies to banks, financial institutions, mutual funds, insurers, intermediaries. Allows attachment/confiscation of illicit assets.

International Cooperation

Double Taxation Avoidance Agreements (DTAAs) & Tax Information Exchange Agreements (TIEAs)

Enables exchange of tax-related data with foreign governments to track undisclosed assets.
 

Automatic Exchange of Information (AEOI) under CRS (2017 onwards)

Multilateral mechanism for proactive sharing of financial account data of Indian residents abroad. Strengthens tax compliance.

Black Money In India Effects

  • Black Money has far-reaching consequences for a nation’s economy. It weakens the financial system by making it difficult for the central bank to regulate money supply, often resulting in inflation and depreciation of the currency.
  • It erodes a country’s credibility at the global level and fuels illegal activities such as drug trafficking and terrorism, which harm national security and social stability. 
  • The government also loses significant revenue through tax evasion, while the rise of a parallel economy undermines governance and policy implementation.
  • Black Money pushes up real estate prices, increasing the risk of asset bubbles that can destabilize the economy.
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Black Money FAQs

Q1: What is the current black money in India?

Ans: Exact figures aren’t available, but estimates run into lakhs of crores, reflecting unaccounted wealth hidden domestically and abroad.

Q2: Is black money legal?

Ans: No, black money is illegal since it represents income not reported to tax authorities, often generated through corruption, tax evasion, or unlawful activities.

Q3: What is the Black Money Act in India?

Ans: The Black Money Act, 2015, targets undisclosed foreign income and assets, imposing heavy penalties and prosecution for concealment.

Q4: What is the difference between black money and money laundering?

Ans: Black money is unaccounted income. Money laundering is the process of disguising illicit money as legitimate by routing it through legal channels.

Q5: What is an example of black money?

Ans: Unreported cash payments for real estate, bribes, or undeclared business profits are common examples of black money in India.

Neurons

October 3, 2025
Neurons

Neurons Latest News

A new study (2025) has identified dendritic nanotubes (DNTs) in the brains of mice and humans, a new form of neuron-to-neuron connection.

About Neurons

  • Neurons (nerve cells) are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system.
  • They are responsible for:
    • Receiving sensory input from the environment.
    • Sending motor commands to muscles.
    • Processing and transmitting electrical and chemical signals.
  • Structure of Neuron:
    • Dendrites → receive incoming signals.
    • Cell Body (Soma) → integrates signals.
    • Axon → carries impulses away from the cell body.
    • Axon Terminals → release neurotransmitters at synapses.

Neuronal Communication

  • Traditionally, neurons communicate via synapses where neurotransmitters cross gaps.
  • New Discovery: Neurons may also connect via nanotubes (DNTs), enabling:
    • Direct electrical signal transfer.
    • Protein transport (including amyloid-beta, linked to Alzheimer’s).

Source: AAAS

Neurons FAQs

Q1: What are neurons?

Ans: Neurons are specialized cells of the nervous system responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information.

Q2: What is the new discovery about neuronal communication?

Ans: Researchers found dendritic nanotubes (DNTs) that allow neurons to exchange signals and proteins directly.

Q3: Why are dendritic nanotubes significant?

Ans: They may play a key role in spreading Alzheimer’s-related proteins like amyloid-beta across neurons.

Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)

October 3, 2025
Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)

Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) Latest News

The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) has launched a tool called SARAL (Simplified and Automated Research Amplification and Learning) to make scientific research more accessible and understandable.

About Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)

  • Established under: ANRF Act, 2023, functioning under the Department of Science & Technology (DST).
  • Subsumed body: The Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) has been merged into ANRF.
  • Core objective: To seed, grow, and promote R&D, and foster a research and innovation culture across universities, colleges, research institutions, and R&D labs in India.
  • Strategic role: Acts as an apex body providing high-level strategic direction to research, in line with the National Education Policy (NEP), 2020.
  • Funding target: ₹50,000 crore for the period 2023–2028, with ~70% expected from private sector contributions.
  • Broader vision: Develop an AI Science & Engineering Open India Stack to revolutionize sectors like drug and chemical discovery, aerospace design, advanced materials, climate and weather studies.
  • Single-window system: Envisaged as a single-window clearance mechanism for R&D funding in academic and research institutions.
  • SARAL uses Artificial Intelligence (AI) to generate simplified summaries of complex research papers in the form of videos, podcasts, posters, and presentations for wider outreach.

Source: TH

Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) FAQs

Q1: What is ANRF?

Ans: The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) is India’s apex research funding body established under the ANRF Act, 2023 to promote R&D and innovation.

Q2: Which body has been merged into ANRF?

Ans: The Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) has been subsumed into ANRF.

Q3: What is the funding target of ANRF for 2023–2028?

Ans: ANRF aims to mobilize ₹50,000 crore, with about 70% expected from private sector contributions.

Thumri Music

October 3, 2025
Thumri Music

Thumri Music Latest News

Recently, Thumri lost a towering voice with the demise of Pandit Chhannulal Mishra (1936–2025), Padma Vibhushan awardee and one of the last great exponents of the Purab Ang of Banaras Gharana.

About Thumri Music

  • Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form of Hindustani music, often called the “lyric of Indian classical music”.
  • It originated in Eastern Uttar Pradesh (mainly Lucknow and Benares) during the 18th century CE, developed by Sadiq Ali Shah.
  • Themes: Primarily about love, separation, and devotion, often centered on Radha-Krishna episodes.
  • Language: Usually sung in Braj Bhasha, Awadhi, and Hindi dialects, with touches of Urdu and Sanskrit.
  • Distinct Feature: Freedom in improvisation; emphasis on bhava (emotion) over strict adherence to raga grammar.
  • Associated Dance Form: Closely linked with Kathak, enhancing its narrative expression.
  • Influences: Draws from Hori, Kajri, Dadra, Jhoola, Chaiti, etc.
  • Types of Thumri:
    • Purbi Thumri (Eastern/Slow tempo): More emotional and lyrical, usually associated with Banaras Gharana.
    • Punjabi Thumri (Fast tempo): Energetic, lively, linked with Patiala Gharana.
  • Major Gharanas of Thumri:
    • Banaras Gharana – Girija Devi, Rasoolan Bai, Siddheshwari Devi, Chhannulal Mishra.
    • Lucknow Gharana – Courtly refinement under Nawabs, Begum Akhtar.
    • Patiala Gharana – Vibrant style with rhythmic play.

Source: TH

Thumri Music FAQs

Q1: What is Thumri?

Ans: Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form of Hindustani music, emphasising lyrical expression and emotion over strict raga rules.

Q2: Where did Thumri originate?

Ans: It originated in Lucknow and Banaras (Eastern UP) in the 18th century CE.

Q3: What are the themes of Thumri?

Ans: Themes include love, separation, devotion, often portraying Radha-Krishna stories.

Sir Creek Dispute

October 3, 2025
Sir Creek

Sir Creek Latest News

Recently, Defence Minister Rajnath Singh warned Pakistan against any aggression in the Sir Creek region, stating that India would give a “resounding and decisive response” that could alter “history and geography”.

About Sir Creek

  • Sir Creek is a 96 km long tidal estuary located in the marshy Rann of Kutch region, separating Gujarat (India) from Sindh (Pakistan).
  • It flows into the Arabian Sea and is a strategically sensitive zone due to its proximity to the international boundary.
  • The area is significant for security, fishing rights, oil and gas exploration, and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) determination.

Nature of the Dispute

  • The dispute arises from differing interpretations of the 1914 Bombay Government Resolution signed between Sindh (then under British India) and the Ruler of Kutch.
  • Pakistan’s claim: The boundary lies on the eastern bank of the creek (giving the creek to Sindh).
  • India’s claim: The boundary should follow the thalweg principle (mid-channel line of navigable waters).
  • Pakistan’s counter-argument: Sir Creek is not navigable, hence the thalweg principle doesn’t apply.
  • India’s stand: The creek is navigable during high tide, so international maritime norms apply.

Source: TH

Sir Creek FAQs

Q1: What is Sir Creek?

Ans: Sir Creek is a 96-km-long disputed tidal estuary between Gujarat (India) and Sindh (Pakistan) in the Rann of Kutch, opening into the Arabian Sea.

Q2: Why is Sir Creek disputed?

Ans: The dispute arises from differing interpretations of the 1914 resolution and whether the thalweg principle applies to tidal estuaries.

Q3: Why is Sir Creek strategically important?

Ans: It inflences maritime boundary demarcation, Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), fishing rights, and security along the Gujarat coastline.

Exercise Drone Kavach

October 3, 2025
Exercise Drone Kavach

Exercise Drone Kavach Latest News

The Spear Corps under Eastern Command of the Indian Army recently conducted Exercise 'Drone Kavach' in the forward areas of Eastern Arunachal Pradesh.

About Exercise Drone Kavach

  • It was conducted by the Indian Army’s Spear Corps, operating under the Eastern Command, 
  • The four-day exercise was conducted in the forward areas of Eastern Arunachal Pradesh.
  • The exercise showcased the Army’s combat readiness for the next generation of drone warfare, besides validating state-of-the-art drone technologies.
  • It was also attended by personnel of the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) deployed in forward areas. 
  • As part of it, a series of tactical manoeuvers and combat situations were exercised to validate the Army’s preparedness for operating in a multi-domain, technology-infused battlefield scenario.
  • Tactics, techniques, and procedures pertaining to target acquisition, active/passive counter-drone measures, and target neutralisation with assured success were rehearsed under simulated conditions.
  • Newly raised structures at the unit level were also exercised for developing tactics, techniques, and procedures in consonance with the overall employment philosophy and mandated operational tasks.

Source: PTI

Exercise Drone Kavach FAQs

Q1: Exercise Drone Kavach was conducted by which formation of the Indian Army?

Ans: It was conducted by the Indian Army’s Spear Corps, operating under the Eastern Command.

Q2: Where was Exercise Drone Kavach conducted?

Ans: It was conducted in the forward areas of Eastern Arunachal Pradesh.

Q3: What was the main focus of Exercise Drone Kavach?

Ans: Drone warfare readiness and counter-drone technologies.

Q4: Which paramilitary force also took part in Exercise Drone Kavach?

Ans: Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP

Ichamati River

October 3, 2025
Ichamati River

Ichamati River Latest News

As the Durga Puja immersions commenced on the Ichamati river, a heightened security presence was initiated on the India-Bangladesh border.

About Ichamati River

  • It is a trans-boundary river which flows through India and Bangladesh.
  • It also forms part of the boundary between the two countries. 
  • Course:
    • It is one of the bifurcations of the Mathabhanga River (a distributary of the Padma) and originates at Mahjdia village in the Nadia district of West Bengal.
    • It flows through the Nadia and North 24 Parganas districts of West Bengal.
    • Then it forms part of the India–Bangladesh international border. Later, it enters Bangladesh’s Satkhira and Khulna districts.
    • It covers a distance of around 216 km before discharging into the Kalindi River at Hasnabad in North 24 Parganas District and finally outfalls into the Bay of Bengal near Moore Island.
  • Ichhamati River and its tributaries form a large oxbow lake complex in North 24-Paraganas district near Bangaon.
  • The river is facing siltation leading to thin flow of water in the dry season and floods in the rainy season.

Source: DEVD

Ichamati River FAQs

Q1: The Ichamati River is a trans-boundary river flowing between which countries?

Ans: India and Bangladesh

Q2: The Ichamati River originates as a bifurcation of which river?

Ans: Mathabhanga River

Q3: In West Bengal, through which districts does the Ichamati River mainly flow?

Ans: Nadia and North 24 Parganas

Q4: What is the approximate length of the Ichamati River?

Ans: 216 km

Trichloroethylene (TCE)

October 3, 2025
Trichloroethylene (TCE)

Trichloroethylene Latest News

Long-term exposure to the industrial solvent trichloroethylene (TCE) outdoors may be linked to an increased risk of Parkinson's disease, according to a recent study.

About Trichloroethylene

  • It is a volatile, colorless liquid organic chemical. 
  • TCE does not occur naturally and is created by chemical synthesis. 

Trichloroethylene Applications

  • It is used primarily to make refrigerants and other hydrofluorocarbons and as a degreasing solvent for metal equipment. 
  • TCE is also used in some household products, such as cleaning wipes, aerosol cleaning products, tool cleaners, paint removers, spray adhesives, and carpet cleaners and spot removers. 
  • Commercial dry cleaners also use trichloroethylene as a spot remover.

How are People Exposed to Trichloroethylene?

  • TCE may be found in the air, water, and soil at places where it is produced or used. 
  • It breaks down slowly and remains in the environment for a long time. 
  • It readily passes through soil and can accumulate in groundwater.
  • People in the general population can be exposed to TCE by inhaling it in indoor and outdoor air, drinking contaminated water, or eating foods that have been washed or processed with contaminated water.

Impact of Trichloroethylene on Human Health

  • People with prolonged or repeated exposure to TCE could experience liver problems and may have an increased risk of developing liver or kidney cancer.
  • TCE also has genotoxic and immunotoxic potential, and some studies indicate that it may be a teratogen.
  • There is also increasing evidence supporting the association between TCE exposure and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and several reproductive and developmental toxicity endpoints, including infertility in males and females, impaired fetal growth, and cardiac teratogenesis.

Source: MEDE

Trichloroethylene FAQs

Q1: What is Trichloroethylene (TCE)?

Ans: Trichloroethylene is a volatile, colorless liquid organic chemical.

Q2: Does Trichloroethylene (TCE) occur naturally in the environment?

Ans: TCE does not occur naturally and is created by chemical synthesis.

Q3: For what primary purpose is Trichloroethylene (TCE) used in industry?

Ans: It is used primarily to make refrigerants and other hydrofluorocarbons and as a degreasing solvent for metal equipment.

Q4: Which type of cancer risk is increased with prolonged Trichloroethylene (TCE) exposure?

Ans: Liver or kidney cancer

National Pulses Mission

October 3, 2025
National Pulses Mission

National Pulses Mission Latest News

The Union Minister for Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare, and Rural Development recently announced that the Cabinet has approved the ‘National Pulses Mission’ and simultaneously increased the Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for rabi crops.

About National Pulses Mission

  • The "Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses" is a six-year central scheme aimed at achieving self-sufficiency in pulses production, with a financial outlay of ₹11,440 crore.
  • It will be for the period from 2025-26 to 2030-31. 

National Pulses Mission Features

  • Under the mission, the Government has set a target to increase pulses production to 350 lakh tonnes by 2030-32 from 242 lakh tonnes achieved in 2023-24.
  • The area under pulses cultivation will be expanded to 310 lakh hectares from 242 lakh hectares, while yield is targeted to improve to 1,130 kg per hectare from 881 kg per hectare.
  • The mission will be implemented through a cluster-based approach across 416 focused districts.
  • About 1,000 new packaging and processing units will be set up, with a maximum subsidy of Rs 25 lakh available for establishing processing and packaging facilities.
  • To improve productivity, the emphasis will be on developing and disseminating the latest varieties of pulses that are high in productivity, pest-resistant and climate-resilient. 
  • Multi-location trials will be conducted in major pulse-growing states to ensure regional suitability.
  • The Government will distribute 126 lakh quintals of certified seeds to pulse-growing farmers, covering 370 lakh hectares by 2030-31.
  • States will prepare five-year rolling seed production plans, with breeder seed production supervised by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
  • Foundation and certified seed production will be undertaken by state and central-level agencies and tracked through the Seed Authentication, Traceability & Holistic Inventory (SATHI) portal.
  • Additionally, 88 lakh seed kits will be distributed free of cost to farmers to support area expansion by an additional 35 lakh hectares, targeting rice fallow areas and promoting intercropping and crop diversification.
  • The mission will particularly focus on increasing production of tur, urad, and masur.
    • A major feature of the mission is the assured procurement of tur, urad and masur under the Price Support Scheme (PSS) of the Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay Sanrakshan Abhiyan (PM-AASHA).
    • National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd.(NAFED) and National Cooperative Consumers Federation (NCCF) will undertake 100 percent procurement in participating states for the next four years from farmers who register with these agencies.

Source: PIB

National Pulses Mission FAQs

Q1: The "Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses" will be implemented during which period?

Ans: 2025-26 to 2030-31

Q2: What is the total financial outlay for the National Pulses Mission?

Ans: ₹11,440 crore

Q3: What is the maximum subsidy available for setting up new pulses processing and packaging units under the National Pulses Mission?

Ans: ₹25 lakh

Q4: Which digital portal will be used for tracking foundation and certified seed production under the National Pulses Mission?

Ans: Seed Authentication, Traceability & Holistic Inventory (SATHI) portal

Promotion of Research & Innovation in Pharma-MedTech Sector (PRIP) Scheme

October 3, 2025
PRIP (Promotion of Research and Innovation in Pharma MedTech Sector) Scheme

PRIP (Promotion of Research and Innovation in Pharma MedTech Sector) Scheme Latest News

The government recently invited applications for research and innovation projects under its Promotion of Research and Innovation in Pharma-MedTech Sector scheme to make it a globally competitive and innovation-driven sector.

About PRIP Scheme

  • The PRIP scheme was launched by the Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers, to transform India into a global powerhouse for R&D in the Pharma MedTech sector.
  • The scheme was notified on August 17, 2023 with total financial outlay of ₹5000 crores.
  • The aim of the scheme is to promote industry-academia linkage for R&D in priority areas and to inculcate the culture of quality research and nurture our pool of scientists.
  • It focuses on two components:
    • Component A: 
      • Strengthening research infrastructure through establishment of Centres of Excellence (CoE) in the seven existing National Institutes of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPERs). 
      • These CoEs would be set up in pre identified areas with a financial outlay of Rs 700 Crores.
    • Component B: 
      • Promoting research in the pharmaceutical sector by encouraging research in six priority areas wherein financial assistance will be provided for the industries, MSMEs, SMEs, startups working with government institutes, and for both in- house and academic research. 
      • The component has a financial outlay of Rs.4250 Crores.
      • Bigger companies can seek funding of up to ₹125 crore, while startups can secure up to ₹1 crore over a period of five years, based on their milestones.
  • Priority Areas: 
    • New Chemical Entity, New Biological Entity, and Phyto-pharmaceuticals 
    • Complex generics and Biosimilars
    • Precision medicine (Targeted innovative therapeutics)
    • Medical devices
    • Orphan Drugs 
    • Drug development for anti-microbial resistance (AMR)
  • An Empowered Committee under the chairmanship of CEO, NITI Aayog, with the secretary-level representation of Pharmaceuticals, Health, ICMR, DBT, CSIR, AYUSH, and DST, will provide guidance for the implementation of the scheme.

Source: ET

PRIP (Promotion of Research and Innovation in Pharma MedTech Sector) Scheme FAQs

Q1: PRIP (Promotion of Research and Innovation in Pharma MedTech Sector) Scheme was launched by which Ministry?

Ans: Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers

Q2: When was the PRIP (Promotion of Research and Innovation in Pharma MedTech Sector) Scheme notified?

Ans: The scheme was notified on August 17, 2023.

Q3: What is the total financial outlay of the PRIP (Promotion of Research and Innovation in Pharma MedTech Sector) Scheme?

Ans: ₹5000 crore

Snow Leopard

October 3, 2025
Snow Leopard

Snow Leopard Latest News

Himachal Pradesh has recorded 83 snow leopards (up from 51 in 2021) as per the latest survey by the Wildlife Wing of the State Forest Department in collaboration with the Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF).

About Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)

  • Declared State Animal of Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh.
  • Found across 12 range countries – Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.
  • India is home to an estimated 500–700 snow leopards spread across the Himalayas and Trans-Himalayan region.
  • Mascot of Khelo India Winter Games 2024: named Sheen-e She (Shan) in Ladakh.
  • It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and is native to the mountain ranges of Central and South Asia.

Key Characteristics Snow Leopard

  • Medium-sized cat, weight 30–55 kg.
  • Height: 55–65 cm | Length: 90–115 cm.
  • Fur: Smoky-grey with black rosettes, providing camouflage in rocky terrain.
  • Paws: Large, act like natural snowshoes to prevent sinking.
  • Tail: Extra-long, used for balance and warmth.
  • Ears: Small and round, reducing heat loss.
  • Nasal cavity: Wide, short—warms cold air before inhalation.
  • Leaping ability: Can leap 10 meters (30 feet) in a single bound.
  • Vocalisation: Cannot roar, unlike most big cats.
  • Evolutionary relation: Closer to tigers than leopards.

Key Details of the Survey

  • The exercise, covering 26,000 sq km across Spiti Valley, Kinnaur, Pangi, Lahaul, and Great Himalayan National Park, involved 271 camera traps.
  • First official sighting of Pallas’s Cat in Kinnaur and rediscovery of Woolly Flying Squirrel in Lahaul also reported.
  • For the first time globally, indigenous women from Kibber contributed to data analysis, highlighting inclusive community participation in conservation.
  • Himachal Pradesh is the first state in India to complete a population estimation of snow leopards, setting a cost-effective, scalable model for monitoring.

Source: IE

Snow Leopard FAQs

Q1: What is the snow leopard also known as?

Ans: Ghost of the mountains

Q2: What is the IUCN status of the snow leopard?

Ans: Vulnerable

Q3: In which Indian states is the Snow Leopard found?

Ans: Found mainly in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, and Sikkim.

India Withdraws Approval for 11 Animal-Based Biostimulants Over Religious Concerns

October 3, 2025
Biostimulants

Biostimulants Latest News

  • The Union Agriculture Ministry has revoked approval for 11 biostimulants derived from animal sources such as chicken feathers, pig tissue, bovine hide, and cod scales. 
  • These products, earlier cleared for use in crops like paddy, tomato, potato, cucumber, and chilli, were withdrawn following complaints citing “religious and dietary restrictions.”

Biostimulants: An Overview

  • Biostimulants are natural or synthetic substances that enhance plant growth, nutrient uptake, and stress tolerance, without being traditional fertilizers or pesticides.
  • It can be derived from plant extracts, microorganisms, animal by-products, or synthetic compounds.
  • Importantly, biostimulants are distinct from pesticides or plant growth regulators, which are covered under the Insecticide Act, 1968.

Examples of Biostimulants with Uses

  • Seaweed extracts: Improve root growth, enhance flowering, and increase resistance to drought and salinity.
  • Humic & fulvic acids: Boost nutrient absorption and soil fertility.
  • Protein hydrolysates & amino acids: Promote early plant growth, increase yield and fruit quality.
  • Microbial inoculants (e.g., Azotobacter, Mycorrhizae): Aid in nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and better soil health.
  • Chitosan (from crustacean shells): Enhances plant defense mechanisms against pests and diseases.

Advantages

  • Improve nutrient use efficiency, reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers.
  • Enhance plant tolerance to abiotic stresses like drought, heat, or salinity.
  • Contribute to higher yields and better quality produce (size, color, taste).
  • Promote soil health and microbial activity, supporting sustainable agriculture.
  • Environmentally friendly alternative compared to excessive agrochemical use.

Regulation of Biostimulants in India

  • Biostimulants in India are regulated under the Fertilizer Control Order (FCO), 1985, formally included through a 2021 amendment. 
  • Manufacturers must register products in Schedule VI with detailed data on chemistry, bio-efficacy, toxicology, and heavy metals. 
  • Oversight lies with the Central Biostimulant Committee.

India’s Biostimulants Market

  • India’s biostimulants market, valued at US$ 355.53 million in 2024, is projected to rise to US$ 1,135.96 million by 2032. 
  • Major producers include Coromandel International, Syngenta, and Godrej Agrovet. 
  • Biostimulants are typically sold in liquid form and applied to crops via spraying.

Centre Withdraws Approval for Animal-Based Biostimulants

  • The government has withdrawn approval for 11 biostimulants derived from animal-based protein hydrolysates—made from bovine hide, chicken feathers, pig tissue, cod scales, sardines, and other animal parts. 
  • These biostimulants were earlier cleared for crops like paddy, tomato, chilli, cotton, cucumber, soybean, grapes, and green gram.

Regulatory Action

  • The move came via a recent notification, which omitted these products from Schedule VI of the Fertiliser Control Order (FCO), 1985. 
  • Though cleared earlier this year by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), ICAR later withheld permission citing ethical, religious, and dietary concerns. 
  • It stressed the need for pre-harvest interval data before allowing animal-derived foliar sprays.

Regulatory Evolution

  • Biostimulants, distinct from fertilisers, are used mainly as sprays to boost crop yield, quality, and growth. 
  • Until 2021, they were freely sold without specific rules on safety or efficacy. 
  • The 2021 amendment to the FCO mandated registration and proof of safety, but companies could continue sales until June 16, 2025, if applications were filed.

Minister’s Concerns on Market Proliferation

  • Union Agriculture Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan highlighted the rampant sale of unregulated biostimulants, with nearly 30,000 products in circulation earlier. 
  • Even after stricter checks, about 8,000 remained in the last four years, but the crackdown has now reduced this to around 650 products.

Source: IE | IE

Biostimulants FAQs

Q1: What are biostimulants and how do they help crops?

Ans: Biostimulants are substances or microorganisms that improve plant growth, nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and yield without being classified as fertilisers or pesticides.

Q2: Why did India withdraw approval for 11 biostimulants?

Ans: The Agriculture Ministry revoked them after complaints from Hindu and Jain communities, citing religious and dietary concerns over animal-based raw materials.

Q3: Which crops were these biostimulants approved for?

Ans: They were cleared earlier for paddy, tomato, potato, cucumber, chilli, cotton, soybean, grapes, and green gram before the approval was withdrawn.

Q4: What regulations govern biostimulants in India?

Ans: Biostimulants are regulated under the Fertiliser Control Order (FCO) 1985, with a 2021 amendment mandating registration, safety tests, and proof of efficacy.

Q5: What is the size of India’s biostimulants market?

Ans: Valued at $355.53 million in 2024, the Indian market is projected to grow to $1,135.96 million by 2032, driven by sustainable agriculture demand.

RBI Relaxes Rules to Boost Market Liquidity and Retail Investor Access

October 3, 2025
RBI Market Liquidity Measures

RBI Market Liquidity Measures Latest News

  • The RBI has unveiled key measures to ease access to capital, including removing the ceiling on loans against listed debt securities, raising the loan limit against shares from ₹20 lakh to ₹1 crore, and increasing IPO financing for retail investors from ₹10 lakh to ₹25 lakh.
  • The steps aim to revitalize India’s financial markets, enhance retail and institutional participation, and improve liquidity amid a busy IPO season. 
  • While boosting lending opportunities for banks, the RBI assured that systemic risks will be managed through macroprudential safeguards, balancing growth with financial stability.

RBI’s Moves Timed to Counter Market Pressures

  • The RBI’s latest relaxations come as Indian equity markets face global and domestic headwinds. 
  • Trade tensions with the US, H1-B visa curbs, and geopolitical flashpoints in West Asia and Europe have hurt investor sentiment. 
  • Adding to the strain, foreign portfolio investors have withdrawn $21 billion from equities in the past year, weakening the rupee and leaving domestic investors to sustain volumes. 
  • By easing rules on lending against shares, debt securities, and IPO financing, the RBI aims to address liquidity shortfalls, bolster domestic participation, and restore confidence in capital markets, while also helping banks reclaim business from structured credit players.

RBI’s IPO Financing Boost to Broaden Retail Access

  • The RBI’s decision to raise the IPO financing limit for retail investors from ₹10 lakh to ₹25 lakh comes as several big-ticket offerings, including Tata Capital and LG, near launch. 
  • Strong listing gains and corporate earnings have already fuelled robust investor appetite. 
  • By easing capital constraints, the move will broaden retail participation, inject more liquidity into the primary market, and deepen India’s capital markets. 
  • Analysts note the timing is critical, ensuring savings flow into equities when demand is peaking, thereby sustaining growth momentum and supporting industry funding.

RBI Eases Rules on Lending Against Shares and Securities

  • The RBI has proposed major relaxations in lending norms, including removing the ceiling on loans against listed debt securities and raising the loan limit against shares to ₹1 crore per borrower, up from ₹20 lakh. 
  • Banks can also now lend more against REITs and InvITs, widening collateral options and boosting liquidity. 
  • The move is expected to increase trading volumes, broaden investor participation, and strengthen credit growth. 
  • Investors, especially high-net-worth individuals, gain quicker and cheaper access to funds without selling securities, while banks benefit from a more diverse collateral base. 
  • However, analysts caution that prudent risk management will be essential to avoid over-leverage in volatile markets.

RBI Lifts Curbs on Lending to Large Borrowers

  • The RBI has proposed withdrawing its 2016 framework that discouraged banks from lending to corporates with exposures of ₹10,000 crore or more. 
  • Initially introduced to push big firms toward capital markets, the framework is now seen as redundant, since the Large Exposure Framework already caps single-bank lending to large groups, managing concentration risks. 
  • The shift will give corporates easier access to bank credit for major projects, mergers, and expansions, while allowing banks more flexibility in financing without undermining financial stability.

RBI Eases NBFC Funding for Infrastructure Projects

  • The RBI has proposed reducing risk weights on NBFC loans to operational, high-quality infrastructure projects, lowering capital requirements and enabling more competitive lending rates. 
  • This move is expected to ease financing costs for developers in critical sectors such as roads, power, transport, and renewables, boosting India’s infrastructure growth. 
  • By improving liquidity and encouraging NBFCs to expand exposure to stable, cash-generating projects, the step supports long-term economic development. 
  • However, analysts caution that the relaxation could raise leverage risks in concentrated NBFC infrastructure portfolios, making prudent capital management essential.

RBI Relaxes Rules on ECBs and IFSC Accounts

  • The RBI has announced major relaxations in External Commercial Borrowing (ECB) norms, including expanding eligible borrowers and lenders, easing maturity and cost restrictions, and simplifying reporting. 
  • These changes are expected to lower overseas borrowing costs and improve compliance ease, making foreign debt more attractive for Indian firms while maintaining safeguards against risk.
  • In parallel, the RBI has extended the repatriation period for foreign currency accounts in IFSCs (like GIFT City) from one to three months, giving exporters more flexibility in managing forex inflows. 
  • This brings onshore rules in line with offshore arrangements, strengthens liquidity in IFSC banking units, and supports India’s ambition of building a globally competitive financial hub.

Source: IE | MC

RBI Market Liquidity Measures FAQs

Q1: What measures has RBI taken to improve market liquidity?

Ans: RBI removed lending caps on debt securities, raised IPO financing and share loan limits, and relaxed NBFC, ECB, and IFSC regulations to ease liquidity.

Q2: How will IPO financing relaxations benefit retail investors?

Ans: By raising the financing cap from ₹10 lakh to ₹25 lakh, RBI enables broader retail participation in big-ticket IPOs, enhancing liquidity in primary markets.

Q3: What changes were made for lending against shares and securities?

Ans: The limit for individual loans against shares was raised to ₹1 crore, and banks can now lend more against REITs, InvITs, and debt securities.

Q4: How does RBI’s move impact infrastructure funding?

Ans: NBFC loans to operational, high-quality infrastructure projects will attract lower risk weights, reducing financing costs and boosting investment in critical sectors.

Q5: Why did RBI relax ECB and IFSC account norms?

Ans: The changes make overseas borrowing cheaper, expand eligible lenders, and allow exporters more time to repatriate funds, strengthening India’s financial ecosystem.

Draft Rules for Regulation of Online Gaming in India

October 3, 2025
Regulation of Online Gaming in India

Regulation of Online Gaming in India Latest News

  • The Ministry of Electronics and IT has released draft rules under the Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025. 
  • The Act, which received Presidential assent in August 2025, aims to regulate online gaming in India, ensure user safety, and curb societal and security concerns linked to money-based online games.

Key Provisions of the Draft Rules

  • Establishment of the Online Gaming Authority of India:
    • Composition: A chairperson and five members from various government ministries.
    • Powers:
      • Decide whether a game qualifies as an “online money game.”
      • Register online games.
      • Issue directions and impose penalties.
      • Cancel registration in case of material changes (e.g., revenue model shift to betting).
  • Scope of regulation:
    • Prohibited: All forms of online money games (poker, fantasy sports, wagering).
    • Permitted: “Online social games” and e-sports, for purposes like recreation, education, and skill development.
  • Registration process:
    • Mandatory for all online game operators.
    • Companies must provide:
      • Revenue model.
      • User safety measures.
      • Proof that revenue comes from ads, subscriptions, or one-time fees (not wagers).
  • Penalties and liabilities:
    • Violations classified as non-bailable offences.
    • Entire company staff can be held liable.
    • Penalty quantum to be decided based on:
      • Profits earned through non-compliance.
      • Losses caused to users.
      • Repeated nature of violation.
  • Grievance redressal mechanism (3-tiered system):
    • Internal redressal by the gaming service provider.
    • Appeal to the Grievance Appellate Committee (under IT Intermediary Rules, 2021).
    • Appeal to the Online Gaming Authority.
  • Role of Ministry of Information and Broadcasting:
    • Issue codes of practice for classification of online social games.
    • Provide guidelines for games related to recreation, education, and skill development.

Significance of the Draft Rules and Way Forward

  • Significance:
    • Addresses security and societal concerns over online gaming.
    • Introduces comprehensive regulation for a growing digital sector.
    • Balances innovation in e-sports and gaming with public safety and consumer protection.
  • Way forward:
    • Ensure clarity in defining “online money games” vs. “social games.”
    • Build stakeholder consensus through public consultation (Example, draft rules open for public consultation till October 31).
    • Develop technological tools to monitor compliance.
    • Encourage responsible gaming while supporting India’s gaming and e-sports industry growth.

Conclusion

  • The draft rules mark a decisive step in regulating India’s fast-growing online gaming industry. 
  • The government seeks to safeguard consumers, curb societal harms, and promote e-sports and skill-based gaming. 
  • The balance between regulation and innovation will determine the effectiveness of this legislation in shaping a responsible digital gaming ecosystem in India.

Source: IE

Regulation of Online Gaming in India FAQs

Q1: What is the primary objective of the Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025?

Ans: To regulate online gaming in India by prohibiting money-based games and promoting safe, skill-based and social gaming.

Q2: How is the Online Gaming Authority of India structured?

Ans: It consists of a chairperson and five members from different ministries, empowered to register games, classify them, cancel registrations for violations, etc.

Q3: What is the difference between ‘online money games’ and ‘online social games’?

Ans: Online money games involve stakes or wagers and are prohibited, while online social games and e-sports for recreation, education, or skill development are permitted.

Q4: What is the grievance redressal mechanism under the draft online gaming rules?

Ans: It is a three-tier system: internal grievance mechanism of service providers, appeal to the Grievance Appellate Committee, and final appeal to the Online Gaming Authority.

Q5: What challenges need to be addressed for the effective implementation of the online gaming regulatory framework?

Ans: Clear definitions of permissible games, effective monitoring tools, preventing misuse of platforms, and balancing regulation with industry innovation.

China’s Growing Role in the Global Electrolyser Market

October 3, 2025
Electrolyser Market

Electrolyser Market Latest News

  • China is capturing nearly 85% of the global alkaline electrolyser market, raising concerns about its dominance in green hydrogen supply chains.

Introduction

  • As the world transitions towards clean energy, green hydrogen has emerged as a central pillar of decarbonisation strategies. 
  • Electrolysers, which split water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity, are at the heart of this revolution. 
  • Much like photovoltaic (PV) modules in solar energy, electrolysers are becoming critical in determining the pace and cost-effectiveness of green hydrogen adoption. 
  • A new debate has surfaced around China’s growing dominance in electrolyser manufacturing and whether it can replicate its success from the solar industry in this new sector.

The Role of Electrolysers in Green Hydrogen

  • Green hydrogen is produced when electrolysers use renewable electricity, such as from wind or solar, to split water. Currently, two main types of electrolysers are commercially used:
    • Alkaline Electrolysers (ALK): A mature technology with lower costs but less efficient under fluctuating loads, making them less suited for renewables.
    • Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Electrolysers: More efficient at variable loads and capable of producing high-purity hydrogen, though significantly costlier due to reliance on rare metals like platinum and iridium.
  • Electrolysers are thus crucial in scaling up global green hydrogen production, especially as industries such as refining, steelmaking, and ammonia production pivot towards decarbonisation.

China’s Dominance in the Electrolyser Market

  • By 2024, China had become the world’s leading hydrogen producer with 36.5 million tonnes annually, including 1,20,000 tonnes of green hydrogen, nearly half the global share. Its dominance in the electrolyser market stems largely from:
    • Manufacturing Scale: China controls about 85% of global alkaline electrolyser capacity.
    • Cost Advantage: Chinese alkaline electrolysers are up to 45% cheaper for international buyers, especially in Europe.
    • Integrated Supply Chains: Abundant domestic access to raw materials like nickel and steel lowers costs.
    • Rapid Deployment: Chinese firms such as LONGi and Envision Energy are not only producing electrolysers but also constructing overseas hydrogen plants.

Price Reductions and Market Push

  • Electrolyser prices in China have fallen steeply, aided by economies of scale and supply chain maturity:
    • A 5 MW ALK electrolyser system cost six million yuan (~$167/kW) in 2024, a 20% drop from 2023.
    • A 1 MW PEM electrolyser system was priced at the same six million yuan (~$838/kW), reflecting a 32% fall in one year.
  • These reductions enhance China’s competitiveness, mirroring the strategy it adopted in the solar PV industry.

Challenges to China’s Global Expansion

  • Despite its momentum, China faces hurdles in capturing the electrolyser market outright:
    • Resource Constraints: PEM electrolysers need precious metals like platinum and iridium, where China depends heavily on imports.
    • System Integration Requirements: Hydrogen systems must be tailored to purity and end-use, limiting the benefits of scale alone.
    • Geopolitical Pushback: Unlike the solar sector, many countries view green hydrogen as strategic and are building domestic capabilities, creating resistance to Chinese imports.
    • Regulatory Scrutiny: Concerns over supply chain security and national energy independence are likely to restrict China’s free entry into global markets.

Global Competition in Green Hydrogen

  • While China is scaling aggressively, other nations are also ramping up efforts. The EU, U.S., Japan, and India have launched national hydrogen missions to secure domestic manufacturing capacity and reduce reliance on imports. 
  • This creates a more contested environment than the solar PV industry, where China’s entry was relatively unchallenged.

Source: TH

Electrolyser Market FAQs

Q1: What role do electrolysers play in green hydrogen production?

Ans: Electrolysers split water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity, making them central to green hydrogen production.

Q2: Which electrolyser technology is cheaper and widely produced by China?

Ans: China dominates in alkaline electrolysers, which are cheaper but less efficient than PEM electrolysers.

Q3: Why are PEM electrolysers costlier than ALK electrolysers?

Ans: PEM electrolysers use precious metals like platinum and iridium, which are expensive and imported.

Q4: How much of the global alkaline electrolyser manufacturing does China control?

Ans: China holds nearly 85% of global alkaline electrolyser manufacturing capacity.

Q5: What challenges could restrict China’s dominance in the electrolyser market?

Ans: Resource dependence, system integration needs, regulatory scrutiny, and global competition could limit its dominance.

Daily Editorial Analysis 3 October 2025

October 3, 2025
Daily Editorial Analysis

A Startup Revolution, the Goal of ‘Innovation Capital’ 

Context

  • In recent years, Tamil Nadu has emerged as a dynamic hub for innovation and entrepreneurship, moving far beyond its traditional industrial identity rooted in manufacturing.
  • The story of Torus Robotics, a young company that began its journey in a government-backed incubation program and went on to sign a ₹100-crore investment memorandum with the Government of Tamil Nadu, symbolises this transformation.
  • What makes such stories remarkable is not just the success of individual startups but the deliberate, system-driven approach that the State has adopted to nurture, scale, and integrate startups into its economic growth strategy.

Pillars of Tamil Nadu’s Startup Revolution

  • Catalytic Role of State Capital

    • The Tamil Nadu Startup Seed Grant Fund (TANSEED) exemplifies this principle. By providing seed grants of ₹10 lakh to startups and ₹15 lakh to women-led, green-tech, and rural ventures, the State has managed to generate an impressive 28-fold multiplier effect in private investment.
    • Startups like Ippopay, Gallabox, and Dream Aerospace, initially backed by modest grants, went on to attract more than ₹537 crore in follow-on investments.
    • Tamil Nadu has extended this model to frontier sectors as well.
    • The Tamil Nadu Space Tech Fund, with milestone-based assistance of up to ₹50 lakh, supports innovations ranging from satellite development to AI-driven geospatial solutions.
    • Such initiatives demonstrate the State’s forward-looking commitment to positioning itself as a leader in deep-tech.

  • Inclusion as Strategy, Not Charity

    • Recognising structural barriers faced by historically disadvantaged groups, the government launched the SC/ST Startup Fund, which has already disbursed over ₹60 crore in equity investments.
    • The Periyar Social Justice Venture Lab furthers this mission, helping marginalised entrepreneurs access acceleration programs, networks, and funding opportunities.
    • Tamil Nadu’s focus on women entrepreneurs has been equally robust.
    • Bootcamps like Thozhili have equipped hundreds of women with training and incubation support, while special seed grants for physically challenged and transgender founders ensure that innovation opportunities are universally accessible.
    • The Gramam Thorum Puthozhil scheme, aiming to establish 100 startups in 100 villages, extends entrepreneurship to rural communities, decentralising wealth creation.

  • A Connected, Decentralised Ecosystem

    • By setting up ten regional hubs across cities like Madurai, Coimbatore, Tiruchi, and Salem, the government ensures that infrastructure, mentorship, and markets are within reach of entrepreneurs across the State.
    • Plans to roll out 100 pre-incubation centres in smaller institutions further democratise access to entrepreneurial pathways.
    • Digital platforms like MentorTN and TANFUND complement physical hubs, enabling seamless connections between mentors, investors, and entrepreneurs.
    • Similarly, initiatives such as StartupTN Smart Card, BrandLabs, and the Corporate Innovation Initiative reduce operational frictions and integrate startups with established enterprises.
    • This systemic approach ensures that entrepreneurs receive not only funding but also access to knowledge, branding tools, and market linkages.

Implications and Future Strategy: From Systems to Global Recognition

  • The transformation of Tamil Nadu’s startup ecosystem illustrates the power of systems over slogans.
  • By institutionalising support structures, embedding inclusion, and fostering collaboration between government, academia, and industry, Tamil Nadu has built a compounding engine of innovation.
  • Where once startups struggled in isolation, today they thrive within an enabling environment.
  • This momentum is set to culminate in the Tamil Nadu Global Startup Summit (TNGSS) 2025, to be held in Coimbatore.
  • Designed as a landmark event, the summit will bring together over 30,000 visitors, 2,000 delegates, and 750 exhibitors from 35 countries.
  • With inclusive facilities for women participants, AI-enabled matchmaking for investors and entrepreneurs, and masterclasses from global leaders such as Google, Meta, Microsoft, and Harvard Innovation Labs, the summit promises to cement Tamil Nadu’s place as a global innovation hub.

Conclusion

  • Tamil Nadu’s journey from an industrial economy to a vibrant startup ecosystem highlights the transformative potential of inclusive, well-designed policy frameworks.
  • By focusing on catalytic capital, structural inclusion, and decentralised networks, the State has created a model where innovation is not confined to elite circles but spread across communities and demographics.
  • With the upcoming Global Startup Summit 2025, Tamil Nadu is poised not only to showcase its achievements but also to write the next chapter in India’s innovation story, one where systems enable dreams, and startups are not just born, but built to last.

A Startup Revolution, the Goal of ‘Innovation Capital’ FAQs

Q1. What are the three pillars of Tamil Nadu’s startup strategy?
Ans. The three pillars are catalytic use of State capital, inclusion as a core growth strategy, and the creation of a decentralised, connected ecosystem.

Q2. How has Tamil Nadu’s startup ecosystem grown in the last four years?
Ans. Tamil Nadu’s registered startups have increased six-fold, from 2,032 to over 12,100, with half of them being women-led.

Q3. What is the role of TANSEED in supporting startups?
Ans. TANSEED provides seed grants to early-stage startups, which has generated a 28-fold multiplier effect in attracting private investment.

Q4. How does Tamil Nadu promote inclusion in entrepreneurship?
Ans. The State supports women, SC/ST, rural, physically challenged, and transgender entrepreneurs through dedicated funds, bootcamps, and incubation programs.

Q5. What is the significance of the Tamil Nadu Global Startup Summit 2025?
Ans. The summit aims to connect entrepreneurs, investors, and global leaders, showcasing Tamil Nadu as a global hub for innovation and collaboration.

Source: The Hindu

The Battlefield, Change and the Indian Armed Forces

Context

  • Artificial intelligence, automation, swarms of drones, and inexpensive precision weapons have radically lowered the cost of force while accelerating decision cycles and amplifying operational risk.
  • For India, facing potential confrontations along two fronts and in multiple domains, the consequence is stark: technological purchases alone will not suffice.
  • India must remake the architecture of power: doctrine, command, force design, professional military education (PME), and the defence industrial base must be integrated into a single, adaptive system.

The problem: fissures between technology and organisation

  • The Indian Armed Forces have taken essential steps, new doctrines (Joint Doctrine, 2017; Army Land Warfare Doctrine, 2018), tri-service agencies for cyber and space, and capability buys such as MQ-9B drones and Rafale-M fighters.
  • Yet capabilities without coherent command structures and cultural alignment risk being stove-piped.
  • Despite political emphasis on jointness for over a decade, joint PME and true operational integration are only now being implemented; the pace of organisational change has lagged operational needs.
  • The underlying problem is not a single deficiency but a mismatch: a technological tempo that demands rapid, multi-domain responses and an institutional tempo that favours slow, service-centred decision cycles.

Proposed Solutions

  • From coordination to command: Theatre Commands and Legal Reforms

    • Moving from mere coordination to unified command is the central organisational prescription.
    • Empowering theatre commanders with administrative and disciplinary authority (as reflected in recent rules) aligns authority with responsibility, a prerequisite for fast, coherent action.
    • But authority must be paired with accountability, legal clarity, and safeguards. Phased activation of theatre commands, with clear metrics and sunset reviews, will help manage inter-service resistance while proving operational utility.
    • The alternative, half-measures that give commanders fragments of authority, will only preserve the worst of both worlds: confusion in crisis and inertia in peace.

  • Doctrine and multi-domain evolution

    • Future conflicts will be multi-domain from the opening salvo: choices made in cyberspace, space, and the information environment will shape kinetic outcomes.
    • Doctrine must therefore be anticipatory. India’s Ran Samvad emphasis on hybrid warriors, officers versed in scholarship, technology and narrative shaping, is a necessary conceptual shift.
    • Doctrine must move beyond stove-piped playbooks to multi-domain campaigns that synchronise ISR, cyber effects, electronic warfare, maritime denial, and precision fires.
    • The Joint Doctrine and land warfare publications supply a baseline, but doctrines must be living documents updated continuously through experimentation, red-teaming, and integrating lessons from exercises into PME.

  • Force design: modularity, speed, and logistics

    • The emergence of Integrated Battle Groups (Rudra) and modular units (Bhairav) is a practical response to the need for speed and tailored lethality.
    • These mission-specific brigades promise 12–48-hour deployments with integrated armour, artillery, engineers, drones and loitering munitions.
    • But rapid entry forces demand rapid logistics, resilient C2, and joint sustainment: absence of logistic parity will render fast brigades brittle.
    • Equally, maritime reforms, carrier-centred posture bolstered by Rafale-M, strengthen blue-water options, yet need an unmanned and subsurface roadmap to deter across the spectrum of conflict.

  • Professional Military Education and the technologist-commander

    • Reforming PME to produce technologist-commanders is vital.
    • Officers must be fluent in code, data-centred decision-making, and information operations; they must also be comfortable failing fast in controlled settings and iterating.
    • Embedding rapid prototyping into exercises, creating joint courses with industry and universities, and rotating technologists through command postings will break the knowledge-silo barrier.
    • Education without institutional pathways for technologists to rise into command echelons will, however, blunt the initiative.

Risks and mitigation

  • Inter-service rivalry: Mitigate via phased authority transfer, joint career pathways, and pooled incentives (budgets tied to joint readiness milestones).
  • Overcentralisation: Avoid giving theatre commanders unchecked power; embed legal oversight and parliamentary reporting.
  • Cyber and AI vulnerabilities: Invest in resilient architectures, adversarial testing, and human-in-the-loop safeguards for AI decisions.
  • Industrial bottlenecks: Reform procurement, finance, and testing frameworks to enable the rapid prototyping loop.

Conclusion

  • The technologies that compress time and expand domains of conflict also demand that the nation knit its forces, doctrine and industry into an adaptive organism capable of rapid learning and decisive action.
  • The textual prescription, theatre commands, modular forces, tri-service technologies, joint PME and civil-military fusion, is sound in orientation.
  • The decisive factor will be execution: clear metrics, phased command activation with accountability, relentless joint testing, and an industrial loop that rewards iteration.

The Battlefield, Change and the Indian Armed Forces FAQs

Q1. Why is jointness critical for India’s armed forces today?
Ans. Jointness is critical because modern wars are multi-domain, and India faces simultaneous threats from China and Pakistan that require faster, integrated responses across land, sea, air, cyber, and space.

Q2. What is the main difference between “coordination” and “command” in military reforms?
Ans. Coordination involves services working together loosely, while command gives theatre commanders real authority and accountability to lead integrated forces during operations.

Q3. How do Integrated Battle Groups (IBGs) strengthen India’s readiness?
Ans. IBGs strengthen readiness by combining armour, artillery, engineers, and drones into modular units that can deploy within 12–48 hours to specific areas of confrontation.

Q4. What role does Professional Military Education (PME) play in future reforms?
Ans. PME trains technologist-commanders who can understand data, technology, and narratives, enabling them to lead effectively in multi-domain and information-centric wars.

Q5. Why must India establish clear metrics for military reforms?
Ans. Clear metrics are essential to measure progress, hold commanders accountable, and ensure reforms translate into real operational readiness rather than paper-based change.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 3 October 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Daily Editorial Analysis 3 September 2025

October 3, 2025
Daily Editorial Analysis

India Needs More Women Judges in the Supreme Court

Context

  • The Supreme Court of India, as the highest judicial authority in the country, carries not only the responsibility of interpreting constitutional provisions but also of embodying the principles of equality and inclusion enshrined in the Constitution.
  • However, its own institutional history reveals a striking underrepresentation of women.
  • The retirement of Justice Sudhanshu Dhulia in August 2025 and the subsequent appointments of Justices Vipul Pancholi and Alok Aradhe, without the inclusion of a woman, has once again drawn attention to the persistent gender imbalance in the Court.
  • At present, Justice B.V. Nagarathna is the only woman among a full strength of 34 judges, raising critical questions about the process and criteria of judicial appointments.

Historical Trends in Women’s Representation

  • Since its establishment in 1950, the Supreme Court has had only eleven women judges, constituting roughly 8% of the 287 judges appointed to date.
  • This small proportion highlights the slow pace of gender inclusion. The appointment of Justice Fathima Beevi in 1989 was a landmark moment, but subsequent progress has been limited.
  • The Collegium decision in August 2021, which elevated three women judges simultaneously, briefly increased women’s representation above 10%.
  • This was unprecedented, but the momentum was not sustained, and subsequent appointments reverted to established patterns of exclusion.
  • The demographic profile of these eleven judges also reveals further gaps. No woman judge has ever been appointed from the Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes, and only Justice Fathima Beevi has represented a religious minority.
  • Moreover, the pathway of direct elevation from the Bar, often regarded as an important route into the higher judiciary, has overwhelmingly benefited men.
  • While nine male lawyers have been appointed directly to the Supreme Court since 1950, only one woman, Justice Indu Malhotra, has achieved this distinction.

Structural Barriers to Advancement

  • Another notable trend is the relatively late age at which women judges are appointed to the Court. This restricts their tenure and limits their ability to attain seniority.
  • For example, several women judges have served for fewer than three years, diminishing their influence in the Court’s institutional processes.
  • This has also affected their opportunities to participate in the Collegium, which plays a decisive role in appointments.
  • Justice Nagarathna is expected to become the first woman Chief Justice of India in 2027, but her term will last only 36 days, an appointment more symbolic than substantive in institutional impact.
  • These patterns suggest that structural barriers, rather than individual merit, have constrained women’s advancement.
  • The absence of systematic efforts to address these barriers perpetuates a cycle of underrepresentation.

The Collegium System and Gender Blindness

  • The process of judicial appointments through the Collegium system has long been criticised for its opacity.
  • While the Memorandum of Procedure outlines the broad framework, where the Chief Justice of India, in consultation with the four senior-most judges, makes recommendations that are forwarded to the executive, the actual criteria guiding selection remain unspecified.
  • Although caste, religion, and regional representation are occasionally cited, gender has not been institutionalised as a factor.
  • Attempts at transparency have been inconsistent. During the tenure of Chief Justice Dipak Misra, Collegium resolutions with stated reasons were made public, but this practice has not been consistently followed by his successors.
  • The absence of clarity creates a system in which gender considerations remain at the margins, dependent on the priorities of individual decision-makers rather than embedded within institutional policy.

Implications for Judicial Diversity

  • The limited representation of women in the Supreme Court has implications beyond numbers. Judges inevitably bring their personal and professional experiences into judicial reasoning.
  • Women judges, by virtue of their perspectives, may highlight issues that might otherwise be overlooked, particularly in cases concerning gender justice, family law, or social policy.
  • However, the underrepresentation of women constrains the diversity of viewpoints that can enrich judicial deliberations.
  • Moreover, the absence of women from leadership positions, such as the Collegium or the Chief Justiceship, weakens the ability of the judiciary to present itself as fully representative of Indian society.
  • While the Court has advanced progressive jurisprudence on gender equality in various judgments, its own institutional practices lag behind its pronouncements.

Conclusion

  • The analysis of women’s representation in the Supreme Court of India reveals structural and procedural gaps that perpetuate gender imbalance.
  • The issue is not simply about fairness to women candidates but about the institutional legitimacy of the judiciary itself.
  • A representative bench, inclusive of women from varied backgrounds, would strengthen public confidence in the judiciary and ensure a broader range of perspectives in judicial decision-making.
  • Without systemic reforms to address these structural barriers, the Supreme Court’s commitment to gender equality risks remaining more rhetorical than real.

India Needs More Women Judges in the Supreme Court FAQs

Q1. How many women have been appointed to the Supreme Court of India since its inception?
Ans. Since 1950, only eleven women have been appointed to the Supreme Court of India.

Q2. Who is the only woman currently serving as a judge in the Supreme Court?
Ans. Justice B.V. Nagarathna is the only woman currently serving as a judge in the Supreme Court.

Q3. Why are women judges often unable to attain seniority in the Supreme Court?
Ans. Women judges are often appointed at a later age, which limits their tenure and opportunities for senior positions.

Q4. What are the main issues with the Collegium system of judicial appointments?
Ans. The Collegium system lacks transparency, has undefined criteria for selection, and does not institutionalise gender as a factor. 

Q5. Why is the presence of women judges important for the Supreme Court?
Ans. Women judges bring diverse perspectives and experiences that can enrich judicial reasoning and enhance public confidence in the judiciary.

Source: The Hindu

Sickle Cell: The Battle for Disability Justice 

Context

  • The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act, 2016 was introduced to safeguard dignity, equality, and inclusion for persons with disabilities in India, in line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
  • However, the revised guidelines issued in March 2024 to assess the disability status of individuals with sickle cell disease (SCD), beta thalassaemia, and related blood disorders highlight the persistent tension between intent and implementation.
  • While recognition of SCD under the Act represents progress, the exclusion of such conditions from employment reservations and the rigid certification process, undermine the law’s transformative potential.

The Legal Framework and Its Limits

  • The RPWD Act categorises persons with benchmark disabilities those with at least 40% impairment, as eligible for benefits such as free school education, development assistance, and quotas in public sector employment.
  • Yet this framework rests heavily on biomedical measurement, which often fails to reflect lived experiences.
  • The guidelines for SCD continue to rely on impairment scoring, privileging visible or easily quantifiable conditions while overlooking chronic, fluctuating, and invisible disabilities.
  • This narrow approach conflicts with the Act’s stated goal of recognising disability as not merely a medical condition but as a product of social and structural exclusion.
  • By failing to extend the 4% reservation in public sector jobs to individuals with SCD, the government has effectively diminished the value of acknowledging the condition under the Act.
  • The result is a form of symbolic recognition that does not translate into tangible protections.

The Nature of Sickle Cell Disability and Barriers in Certification

  • The Nature of Sickle Cell Disability

    • SCD is a lifelong, painful, and disabling blood disorder that disproportionately affects marginalised Adivasi and Dalit communities.
    • Though its symptoms may not always be outwardly visible, the disease entails recurrent pain crises, anaemia, organ damage, and frequent hospitalisation from childhood onwards.
    • These episodes interrupt education, limit livelihood opportunities, and shorten life expectancy.
    • The social stigma surrounding the disease further compounds the challenges faced by affected individuals, making them vulnerable to discrimination in schooling, employment, and healthcare access.

  • Barriers in Certification

    • Certification is the gateway to most entitlements under the RPWD Act.
    • However, obtaining a disability certificate for SCD patients is fraught with difficulties.
    • Diagnosis requires confirmatory tests from government or accredited laboratories, followed by evaluation by a district medical authority.
    • The scoring system assigns points based on complications such as transfusion frequency, neurological impact, or degree of pain.
    • This mechanistic approach often excludes individuals whose disability manifests episodically or whose symptoms are primarily invisible.

Socioeconomic Consequences and the Way Forward

  • Socioeconomic Consequences

    • The inadequacies of the current framework have direct implications for education, employment, and poverty alleviation.
    • Children with SCD often miss school due to hospitalisation, while young adults face disrupted career trajectories and recurrent job losses because of painful episodes.
    • Despite this, the denial of job reservations under the RPWD Act deprives them of opportunities for stable livelihoods.
    • Economic exclusion is reinforced by gaps in social protection.
    • While income tax deductions and enhanced pension schemes exist for persons with certified disabilities, many SCD patients remain unable to access them due to restrictive scoring and certification hurdles.
    • This perpetuates a cycle of vulnerability in which health burdens and social disadvantage feed into one another.

  • The Way Forward: Towards a More Inclusive Framework

    • Several reforms are essential if the RPWD Act is to fulfil its promise of equality.
    • First, job reservations should be extended to individuals with SCD and other chronic blood disorders, recognising the condition as a significant lifelong disability.
    • Second, the certification process must be reformed to account for fluctuating and invisible disabilities.
    • Instead of rigid scoring systems, assessments should adopt a rights-based approach that considers the broader socioeconomic impact of chronic illness.
    • Third, outreach and support mechanisms must be strengthened for marginalised communities, ensuring that access to certification and entitlements does not depend on geographical or financial privilege.
    • These measures would align with the Act’s original spirit: moving away from a narrow medical lens and acknowledging disability as a product of social exclusion and systemic barriers.

Conclusion

  • The recognition of sickle cell disease under the RPWD Act marks an important step, but without substantive rights and protections, it risks becoming a hollow gesture.
  • By excluding SCD from employment reservations and relying on inaccessible certification processes, the state undermines the very principles of dignity, equality, and inclusion that the Act was meant to uphold.
  • Disability must be understood not only as an impairment but as a lived experience shaped by social, economic, and structural inequities.
  • For India’s disability rights framework to be truly inclusive, it must embrace chronic and invisible conditions such as SCD, ensuring that recognition translates into real, enforceable rights.

Sickle Cell: The Battle for Disability Justice FAQs

Q1. What is the purpose of the RPWD Act, 2016?
Ans. The RPWD Act, 2016 aims to protect the rights of persons with disabilities, promoting dignity, equality, and inclusion in society.

Q2. Why are individuals with sickle cell disease (SCD) disadvantaged under the Act?
Ans. They are disadvantaged because SCD is not included in public sector job reservations, and the disability certification process often fails to capture the condition’s fluctuating and invisible impact.

Q3. How does SCD affect the daily lives of individuals?
Ans. SCD causes recurrent pain, fatigue, organ damage, and frequent hospitalisation, which disrupt schooling, employment, and life opportunities.

Q4. What are the barriers to obtaining disability certification for SCD patients?
Ans. Certification requires confirmatory tests and evaluation by medical authorities, which are often inaccessible to marginalised communities, and the scoring system does not account for episodic or invisible symptoms.

Q5. What reforms are suggested to make the RPWD Act more inclusive for people with SCD?
Ans. Reforms include extending job reservations to individuals with SCD, adopting a rights-based certification process, and improving access for marginalised communities.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 3 September 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

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