Articles on 2 December 2025

by Vajiram & Ravi - 2 December 2025

Vajiram & Ravi provides Daily articles for 2 December 2025, tailored for aspirants. We cover all relevant news and events crucial for the exam, ensuring you stay updated & well-prepared.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act, Objectives

December 2, 2025
Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act

The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Bill was introduced in 2000 by the Atal Bihari Vajpayee government to give legal shape to the idea of fiscal discipline in India. It aimed to bring accountability and transparency to government finances. The bill became law in 2003, marking a major shift in how public funds were to be managed. The FRBM Act 2003 set specific targets for reducing fiscal deficits, improving financial management, and promoting long-term fiscal stability.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act

The Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management Act, 2003 (FRBMA), is a law enacted by the Indian Parliament to enforce principles of sound financial management and keep fiscal deficits under control. Its core aim is to ensure a balanced budget and promote fiscal discipline.

The Act initially targeted eliminating the revenue deficit and capping the fiscal deficit at 3% of GDP by March 2008. However, the 2007 global financial crisis forced the government to delay and eventually suspend these targets in 2009. In 2011, as the economy began recovering, the Economic Advisory Council recommended revisiting the FRBM framework. A review committee, chaired by N. K. Singh, set up under the Ministry of Finance, was later tasked with evaluating and updating the Act’s provisions.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Needs

In May 2016, the government appointed N. K. Singh to head a committee to review the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act. The committee recommended a phased reduction in the fiscal deficit starting with a target of 3% of GDP by March 2020, then lowering it to 2.8% in 2020-21, and further to 2.5% by 2022-23.

During COVID-19 pandemic, the economic slowdown and increased spending on welfare and healthcare led to a major revenue shortfall. As a result, the government recorded a fiscal deficit of 9.2% of GDP in FY21, slightly better than the revised estimate of 9.5%. For FY22, the deficit target was scaled down to 6.8%, with a longer-term goal of bringing it down to 4.5% by FY26.

The FRBM Act, 2003 is designed not just to limit deficits but also to improve transparency in fiscal management of India. Over the long term, it aims to achieve budgetary stability while giving the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) the space it needs to manage inflation effectively.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Objectives

The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act, passed by the Indian Parliament in 2003, was a significant step toward institutionalizing financial discipline in the country. Its core objective is to ensure responsible fiscal management by reducing the fiscal deficit and improving the quality of macroeconomic governance. The key goals of the Act can be understood across four broad themes:

  • The FRBM Act mandates specific targets to bring down the fiscal deficit, revenue deficit, and total government debt as a percentage of GDP. 
  • To promote openness in fiscal operations, the FRBM Act requires the government to present documents such as the Medium-Term Fiscal Policy Statement, Fiscal Policy Strategy Statement, and Outcome Budget to Parliament. 
  • The FRBM Act aims to reduce inflationary pressures and maintain a stable macroeconomic environment. 
  • One of the Act’s long-term aims is to prevent the economy from falling into a debt trap by ensuring that debt levels remain within sustainable limits.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Features

To achieve the objectives, Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Features were incorporated which are mentioned below:

  • The FRBM Act sets limits on fiscal deficit and revenue deficit, expressed as a percentage of GDP. Initially, the Act aimed to reduce the fiscal deficit to 3% of GDP by 2008. These targets are periodically updated based on economic needs and government priorities. 
  • Under the FRBM Act, the central government is mandated to present three critical fiscal documents every financial year: the Medium-Term Fiscal Policy Statement, the Fiscal Policy Strategy Statement, and the Macroeconomic Framework Statement. 
  • Each year, the government outlines specific fiscal goals and performance determiners in line with FRBM principles.
  • The FRBM Act is not static, it includes a built-in review mechanism. This means fiscal targets can be reassessed and modified based on changing economic conditions.

FRBM Act Escape

The FRBM Act Escape allows the government to exceed the fiscal deficit target in case of extraordinary circumstances which includes war, natural calamity, severe economic downturn or other significant events beyond control. While this provides flexibility and the government is expected to return to the fiscal path once the crisis passes. Even when invoked, the government must justify the deviation and lay out a path to correction.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Advantages

  • FRBM Act sets legal limits on fiscal and revenue deficits, discouraging excessive borrowing and forcing the government to prioritize essential spending. 
  • Mandates regular reports like the Medium-Term Fiscal Policy and Fiscal Strategy Statements. These documents provide reliable insights into government finances, helping stakeholders plan based on data rather than guesswork.
  • By keeping deficits under control, the Act helps reduce inflationary pressure, stabilizes interest rates, and avoids crowding out private investment which creates a more stable environment for long-term economic growth.
  • Transparent and rule-based fiscal policy enhances the government's credibility. It attracts both domestic and foreign investors, strengthens market confidence, and supports better sovereign credit ratings.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Issues

  • Though the FRBM Act Escape clause allows deviation from targets during unforeseen circumstances, frequent use undermines the Act’s credibility. It raises doubts about the government’s commitment to long-term fiscal discipline.
  • Strict fiscal targets may limit necessary investments in critical sectors like health, education, and infrastructure. This can hurt long-term growth and weaken efforts to improve social outcomes.
  • The success of the Act relies on strong institutions and political commitment. Inconsistent implementation across different governments and regimes hampers its effectiveness and enforcement.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act FAQs

Q1: What is the FRBM Act?

Ans: A law to ensure responsible fiscal management by reducing fiscal deficits and promoting transparency in India's financial operations.

Q2: When was the FRBM Act passed?

Ans: The FRBM Act was enacted in 2003 by the Indian Parliament.

Q3: What is the main objective of the FRBM Act?

Ans: To reduce fiscal deficit, eliminate revenue deficit, and ensure macroeconomic stability.

Q4: Who implements the FRBM Act?

Ans: The Ministry of Finance, under the Government of India.

Q5: What are fiscal and revenue deficits?

Ans: Fiscal deficit is excess expenditure over income; revenue deficit is excess revenue spending over revenue receipts.

Human Development Index (HDI), Meaning, Calculation, Components

December 2, 2025
Human Development Index (HDI)

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a key measure developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) that shifts the focus of development from purely economic output to people’s capacities and lives. It provides a more holistic view of how countries are doing in terms of health, education and standard of living.

Human Development Index (HDI)

The Human Development Index is a summary measure of average achievement in three basic dimensions of human development:

  • A long and healthy life (measured by life expectancy at birth)
  • Access to knowledge (measured by expected years of schooling for children and mean years of schooling for adults)
  • A decent standard of living (measured by Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, adjusted for purchasing-power parity)

In effect, the HDI uses the geometric mean of these three dimension-indices to compute a composite score between 0 and 1, where a higher number indicates higher human development.

Human Development Index Calculation

The Human Development Index 2025 is calculated in three steps:

  • Compute Dimension Indices
    • Health Index = (Life Expectancy - 20) / (85 -20)
    • Education Index = (Mean Years of Schooling Index + Expected Years of Schooling Index) / 2
    • Income Index = (log(GNI per capita) - log(100)) / (log(75,000) - log(100))
  • Combine Indices
    • HDI = (Health Index × Education Index × Income Index)^(1/3)
  • Rank Countries
    • Countries are ranked based on their HDI score and grouped into development categories.

Human Development Index Historical Background

The idea of measuring development through people’s well-being, rather than only economic output, gained importance in the late 20th century. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) introduced the Human Development Index (HDI) in 1990, inspired by the works of Dr. Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen. Dr. Haq argued that development should expand people’s choices and freedoms, not just increase national income. The first Human Development Report published in 1990 introduced HDI as a new approach to understanding development, focusing on health, knowledge, and income as key pillars.

Since then, the HDI has become a central feature of UNDP’s annual Human Development Reports (HDRs) and is used by governments, economists, and researchers worldwide to evaluate progress and inequalities among countries.

Human Development Index Classification of Countries

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) categorizes countries into four groups based on HDI values:

  • Very High Human Development: HDI of 0.800 and above
  • High Human Development: HDI between 0.700 and 0.799
  • Medium Human Development: HDI between 0.550 and 0.699
  • Low Human Development: HDI below 0.550

Human Development Index Components

The major dimensions of the Human Development Index is distributed into three components as given below:

  1. Health Dimension
    • Represented by life expectancy at birth, which reflects the average number of years a person is expected to live under current conditions.
    • Higher life expectancy indicates better health services, nutrition, and living conditions.
  2. Education Dimension
    • Measured using mean years of schooling (average years of education received by adults aged 25 and above) and expected years of schooling (years of schooling a child entering the education system can expect).
    • Education enhances human capabilities and contributes to individual and national growth.
  3. Standard of Living
    • Measured by Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (PPP), adjusted for purchasing power parity to reflect real living standards.
    • This captures the economic capacity and access to resources available to citizens.

Inequality Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)

The Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) shows how unequal access to opportunities lowers overall development. For India, the IHDI shows nearly 31% loss in HDI value due to inequality in income, health, and education. The Gender Development Index (GDI) and Gender Inequality Index (GII) highlight gender-based disparities:

  • India ranked 108th on GII (UNDP 2024).
  • Women’s labor participation rate is below 30%.
  • Access to higher education and political representation still needs improvement.

Human Development Index India’s Performance

India’s experience with the Human Development Index offers interesting insights:

  • According to UNDP, India’s HDI value rose from 0.676 in 2022 to 0.685 in 2023, placing the country at 130th out of 193 countries in the 2025 Human Development Report.
  • Between 1990 and 2022, India’s HDI value increased from 0.434 to 0.644, a rise of about 48.4%.
  • The improvement has been driven by gains in life expectancy (from 58.6 years in 1990 to around 72 years in 2023), education (schooling years increasing) and income (GNI per capita rising).
  • Life expectancy: Increased from 58.6 years (1990) to 72 years (2023).
  • Education: Mean years of schooling rose from 3.0 years to 6.2 years.
  • Income: GNI per capita (PPP) increased from US$2,000 in 1990 to about US$9,000 in 2023.
  • Despite these gains, India still falls under the Medium Human Development category.
  • States like Kerala, Goa, and Himachal Pradesh show higher HDI, while Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Jharkhand lag behind.

Government Policies to Improve HDI in India

India has introduced several national programs to improve its HDI indicators. Together, these schemes aim to raise living standards and human capital, both essential for improving the Human Development Index.

  • Ayushman Bharat Yojana (2018): Provides free healthcare coverage to over 10 crore families.
  • National Education Policy (2020): Focuses on inclusive, skill-based, and flexible education.
  • Skill India Mission (2015): Aims to provide vocational training to millions of youth.
  • PM-KISAN and PM Awas Yojana: Support rural income and housing.
  • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015): Promotes education and safety of girls.
  • Digital India Mission: Expands access to technology and e-governance, improving service delivery.

UNDP Indices

To overcome Human Development Index’s limitations, UNDP introduced related indices:

  • Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI)- Adjusts HDI based on inequality levels in each dimension.
  • Gender Development Index (GDI)- Compares HDI values for men and women.
  • Gender Inequality Index (GII)- Measures gender-based disadvantages in health, empowerment, and labor.
  • Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)- Measures overlapping deprivations in health, education, and living standards.

Human Development Index Challenges

While the HDI is a powerful tool, there are well-recognised limitations:

  • Simplification: It condenses complex realities into a single number, which can mask internal disparities and context.
  • Data Lag and Quality: Some critics argue that HDI data may be outdated or not fully represent the current situation, particularly in countries with rapid change.
  • Exclusion of Important Dimensions: HDI does not directly capture environmental sustainability, governance quality, informal work, and the distribution of development. Although complementary indices exist, they are not always emphasised.
  • Comparability Issues: Methodological changes over time, and differing national circumstances, complicate direct comparisons across years or countries.

Way Forward:

  • Focus on Quality Education: Mere enrolment is not sufficient; improving learning outcomes and mean years of schooling should be a priority.
  • Health Equity: Strengthening primary health-care networks, reducing malnutrition, and improving maternal and child health will push life-expectancy gains further.
  • Growth with Inclusivity: Economic growth must translate into improved living standards for marginalised communities for the standard-of-living dimension to keep rising.
  • Addressing Inequality: Losses in HDI due to inequality suggest that targeted programmes for vulnerable groups (women, rural, SC/ST, minorities) will deliver better human development.
  • State-Level Variation: Sub-national HDI shows vast gaps between Indian states (for example, Goa or Kerala perform much better than others), policy must recognise regional diversity.
  • Beyond HDI: Integrate sustainability and climate resilience into human development planning, as climate change increasingly threatens human life and well-being.

Human Development Index Significance

While Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and per capita income remain important, they don’t tell the full story about human welfare. The HDI matters because:

  • It highlights people’s opportunities, not just their income or output.
  • It allows cross-country comparison and shows broader social progress.
  • It directs attention to education, health and standard of living as core development components.
  • It enables policy makers to identify weak areas (for example schooling or income) and design targeted interventions.

Human Development Index Future Aspects

As India and the world navigate 21st-century challenges, the Human Development Index remains relevant but requires evolution:

  • Technological Change: The UNDP’s 2025 Report emphasises how AI and digital inclusion can shape future human development opportunities.
  • Climate and Environment: Human development must increasingly account for environmental resilience, because climate vulnerabilities affect health, livelihood and education.
  • Data Disaggregation: More granularity at district and city-level HDI, and inclusion of informal work and technology access, will improve relevance.
  • Inclusive Growth: The focus will shift to not just raising HDI values but ensuring equitable and sustainable human development.
  • Global Interdependence: India’s progress in HDI ties into global goals like the Sustainable Development Goal 10 (reduced inequalities) and SDG 3, 4 (health and education).

Human Development Index UPSC

The Human Development Index reveals important global trends:

  • Worldwide, HDI values have steadily increased since its introduction in 1990.
  • The HDI emphasises that human well-being is more than economic growth—it encompasses health, education and living standards.
  • The index has also been complemented by related measures such as the Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI), Gender Development Index (GDI) and Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) to account for uneven distribution of development.
  • In policy discourse, the HDI has shifted the paradigm from “how much economy grows” to “how well people live”.

Human Development Index FAQs

Q1: What is the Human Development Index (HDI)?

Ans: The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite measure developed by UNDP in 1990 to assess health, education, and income levels in countries.

Q2: Who introduced the Human Development Index?

Ans: HDI was introduced by economist Dr. Mahbub ul Haq and Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen in 1990 through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

Q3: What is India’s rank in the Human Development Index 2024?

Ans: According to the UNDP Human Development Report 2024, India ranks 134th with an HDI value of 0.644.

Q4: What are the three main components of Human Development Index?

Ans: The three main components of HDI are life expectancy at birth, mean and expected years of schooling, and Gross National Income per capita.

Q5: How is the Human Development Index different from GDP?

Ans: GDP measures only economic output, while HDI assesses overall human well-being by combining health, education, and income indicators.

UPSC Daily Quiz 2 December 2025

December 2, 2025
UPSC Daily Quiz

The Daily UPSC Quiz by Vajiram & Ravi is a thoughtfully curated initiative designed to support UPSC aspirants in strengthening their current affairs knowledge and core conceptual understanding. Aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, this daily quiz serves as a revision resource, helping candidates assess their preparation, revise key topics, and stay updated with relevant issues. Whether you are preparing for Prelims or sharpening your revision for Mains, consistent practice with these Daily UPSC Quiz can significantly enhance accuracy, speed, and confidence in solving exam-level questions.

[WpProQuiz 35]

UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Judicial Review, Definition, Evolution, Types, Constitutional Provisions

December 2, 2025
Judicial Review

Judicial Review is a process that courts use to review the laws made by the government to check whether they are made based on the basic structure of the Constitution. If any law is found to be inconsistent with the Constitution, the courts can cancel it or modify it, or ask the government to make better laws. This system of judicial review safeguards citizens' rights, upholds the rule of law in the country.

Judicial Review Evolution

The concept of Judicial Review evolved gradually through constitutional debates and landmark judgments. It originated from the U.S. case Marbury v. Madison (1803), which heavily influenced Indian constitutional framers.

In India, the Supreme Court expanded Judicial Review through cases such as Shankari Prasad (1951), Golaknath (1967), and the historic Kesavananda Bharati (1973) judgment.

  • 1950s: Courts upheld Parliament’s power to amend Fundamental Rights (Shankari Prasad, 1951).
  • 1960s: SC restricted this power, stating Parliament cannot amend Fundamental Rights (Golaknath, 1967).
  • 1970s: Judicial Review became part of the Basic Structure (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973).
  • 1980s-1990s: Review strengthened in areas like judicial appointments, environment, elections, and rights expansion.
  • 2000s-2020s: Courts expanded review over ordinances, privacy, Aadhaar, electoral bonds, and constitutional amendments.

Types of Judicial Review

Judicial Review in India operates at multiple levels. Each type helps check different types of governmental actions. Courts use these powers to strike down unconstitutional, arbitrary, or ultra vires decisions.

  • Constitutional Judicial Review: Courts examine whether legislative acts, executive orders, and administrative decisions are consistent with the Constitution. If any action violates constitutional provisions, courts can strike it down.
  • Statutory Judicial Review: Courts interpret and assess the validity of statutes, rules, and regulations. This ensures that laws are applied correctly and remain consistent with other legal provisions.
  • Administrative Judicial Review: Courts review decisions and actions taken by administrative or regulatory agencies. The review checks if agencies followed the law, maintained fairness, and stayed within their authority.
  • Procedural Judicial Review: It focuses on whether proper legal procedures and due process were followed while making decisions. It ensures fairness, transparency, and adherence to established rules.
  • Substantive Judicial Review: Courts examine the content, fairness, and reasonableness of laws or decisions. It goes beyond procedure and evaluates whether the decision is just and lawful in substance.

Judicial Review Constitutional Provisions

Judicial Review in India is supported by various constitutional provisions that empower the Supreme Court and High Courts to examine the constitutionality of laws, executive actions, and state-centred disputes.

Judicial Review Constitutional Provisions
Article Provision / Role in Judicial Review

Article 13

Declares that all laws inconsistent with Fundamental Rights are null and void.

Article 32

Guarantees the right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights and empowers SC to issue writs.

Article 131

Provides original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in Centre-State and inter-state disputes.

Article 132

Provides appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in constitutional cases.

Article 133

Provides appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in civil cases.

Article 134

Provides appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in criminal cases.

Article 134A

Deals with the certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court from High Courts.

Article 135

Empowers the Supreme Court to exercise powers of the Federal Court under any constitutional law.

Article 136

Authorizes the Supreme Court to grant special leave to appeal from any court or tribunal (except military courts).

Article 143

Authorizes the President to seek the Supreme Court’s opinion on any question of law or fact, including pre-constitution matters.

Article 226

Empowers High Courts to issue directions, orders, or writs for enforcement of Fundamental Rights or other legal purposes.

Article 227

Vests High Courts with power of superintendence over all courts and tribunals within their jurisdiction (except military courts).

Article 245

Deals with the territorial extent of laws made by Parliament and State Legislatures.

Article 246

Defines subjects of laws made by Parliament and State Legislatures (Union List, State List, Concurrent List).

Articles 251 & 254

Provide that in case of conflict between central and state laws, central law prevails; state law becomes void.

Article 372

Deals with continuance in force of pre-constitution laws.

Judicial Review and Basic Structure Doctrine

Judicial Review in India is closely linked with the Basic Structure Doctrine, which ensures that certain fundamental features of the Constitution cannot be altered by Parliament, even through constitutional amendments.

Features of the Basic Structure Doctrine

  • Introduced by the Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973).
  • Parliament can amend the Constitution, but cannot alter its “basic structure”.
  • Protects fundamental elements like:
    • Supremacy of the Constitution
    • Rule of Law
    • Separation of Powers
    • Judicial Review
    • Fundamental Rights
    • Federalism
    • Democracy and Free Elections
  • Acts as a check on arbitrary amendments by Parliament.

Judicial Review in the Ninth Schedule

The Ninth Schedule of the Indian Constitution was added by the First Amendment (1951) to protect certain laws, primarily land reform and agrarian legislation, from judicial review.

  • Purpose: To ensure smooth implementation of socio-economic reforms, especially land redistribution, without being struck down by courts.
  • Scope of Judicial Review: Originally, laws in the Ninth Schedule could not be challenged under Articles 14, 19, or 31 (Fundamental Rights).
  • Judicial Intervention: In I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007), the Supreme Court ruled that even laws in the Ninth Schedule are subject to judicial review if they violate the basic structure of the Constitution.
  • Criteria for Review: Laws added after April 24, 1973 (Kesavananda Bharati case) are subject to judicial review and can be declared unconstitutional if they violate the basic structure of the Constitution.

Judicial Review vs Judicial Activism

Judicial Review is the power of courts to examine laws and government actions for constitutionality, while Judicial Activism involves proactive intervention by courts to protect rights, fill legal gaps, or address social issues. Here are the key differences between Judicial Review and Judicial Activism.

Judicial Review vs Judicial Activism
Aspect Judicial Review Judicial Activism

Nature

Reactive power to check constitutionality

Proactive judicial intervention

Scope

Limited to legality and constitutionality

Broader, can address policy, rights, and welfare

Initiation

Usually on petition by affected party

Can be suo motu or public interest litigation

Objective

Ensure laws and actions follow the Constitution

Protect rights, fill gaps, promote justice

Example

Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) - Supreme Court struck down constitutional amendments that violated the Basic Structure.

Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997) - Supreme Court laid down guidelines to prevent sexual harassment at workplace through proactive intervention (PIL)

Judicial Review in India vs USA

Judicial Review exists in both India and the USA, but its scope, origin, and application differ. In the USA, it originated through judicial precedent (Marbury v. Madison, 1803). 

In India, it is constitutionally embedded through Articles 13, 32, 226, and 368, and covers not only laws and executive actions but also constitutional amendments.

Judicial Review in India vs USA
Feature India USA

Scope

Narrower

Broader

Basis

"Procedure established by law"

"Due process of law"

Grounds for Review

Primarily substantive (e.g., unconstitutional)

Both substantive (e.g., illegal) and procedural (e.g., unreasonable)

Judicial Activism

Judiciary has used activism to broaden scope, sometimes adopting "due process" concept

"Due process" clause gives broad power to review laws for reasonableness and fairness

Judicial Review of Constitutional Amendments

Supreme Court and High Courts can review amendments on procedural and substantive grounds

Courts generally refrain from reviewing constitutional amendments on either ground

Judicial Review Importance

Judicial Review is important because it protects the Constitution and Fundamental Rights, ensures that laws and government actions follow the Constitution, and prevents misuse of power.

  • Protection of Fundamental Rights: Ensures that citizens’ rights are not violated by laws, executive actions, or policies.
  • Supremacy of the Constitution: Keeps all laws and government actions in line with constitutional provisions.
  • Check on Arbitrary Power: Prevents the legislature or executive from acting beyond their authority.
  • Ensures Justice and Fairness: Makes sure decisions are reasonable, fair, and follow the rule of law.
  • Maintains Federal Balance: Resolves conflicts between Centre and State laws, ensuring harmony in a federal system.
  • Promotes Accountability and Transparency: Holds government and public authorities responsible for their actions.
  • Safeguards Democracy: Acts as a guardian of democratic principles and prevents authoritarian misuse of power.

Contemporary Issues Related to Judicial Review

Judicial Review protects the Constitution and Fundamental Rights, but modern challenges affect its effectiveness in India.

  • Legitimacy vs Majority Rule: Unelected judges striking down laws can seem to undermine elected representatives. Judicial review ensures protection of Fundamental and minority rights against “tyranny of the majority.”
  • Activism vs Overreach: Courts act proactively to protect rights or fill gaps, but excessive intervention can be seen as overreach.
  • Intervention occurs mainly when the legislature or executive fail in their duties.
  • Separation of Powers: Judicial Review maintains checks and balances, but repeated or broad interventions can create conflicts with other government branches.
  • Policy and Economic Decisions: Courts review complex matters like infrastructure projects or economic reforms.
  • Appointments and Accountability: India’s collegium system ensures judicial independence but raises concerns about limited accountability and transparency.
  • Backlog and Access to Justice: Over 5 crore cases pending in India; 88,000+ in SC, 63 lakh in High Courts.

Conclusion

Judicial Review is a key part of India’s democracy that makes sure all laws and government actions follow the Constitution. It protects citizens’ Fundamental Rights, preserves the core principles of the Constitution, and keeps a balance between the legislature, executive, and judiciary. Despite challenges like case backlogs and judicial overreach, Judicial Review is essential for ensuring justice, democracy, and the rule of law in India.

Judicial Review FAQs

Q1: What is Judicial Review?

Ans: Judicial Review is the power of courts to examine laws, executive actions, and constitutional amendments to ensure they comply with the Constitution.

Q2: Which courts can exercise Judicial Review in India?

Ans: Both the Supreme Court (Articles 32, 136) and High Courts (Article 226) can exercise Judicial Review.

Q3: What is the Basic Structure Doctrine?

Ans: The Basic Structure Doctrine prevents Parliament from altering the core features of the Constitution, such as Fundamental Rights, separation of powers, and democracy, even through constitutional amendments.

Q4: Can laws in the Ninth Schedule be reviewed?

Ans: Yes. After I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007), laws in the Ninth Schedule can be reviewed if they violate the basic structure of the Constitution.

Q5: What is the difference between Judicial Review and Judicial Activism?

Ans: Judicial Review is the reactive power to check constitutionality of laws, while Judicial Activism is proactive intervention by courts to protect rights, fill gaps, or address social issues.

Important Days in November 2025, National and International Days List

December 2, 2025
Important Days in November 2025

November is a month full of important national and international days that highlight social awareness, historical milestones, cultural observances, and environmental initiatives. From festivals like Diwali and Guru Nanak Jayanti to global observances such as World Diabetes Day and Children’s Day, November 2025 will see celebrations that inspire unity, knowledge, and responsibility. This article provides a complete list of Important Days in November 2025 with their themes and significance.

Important Days in November 2025

November 2025 brings together a range of important national and international days that inspire education, equality, and awareness. From commemorating India’s Constitution and statehood to promoting global health, science, and peace, each day carries deep meaning. Observing these days not only enriches our understanding of history and society but also motivates citizens to act toward a better world.

Also Check: Important Days in October 2025

Important Days in November 2025 List

The list of Important Days in November 2025 has been tabulated below along with their significance:

Important Days in November 2025
Date Day Significance

November 1

World Vegan Day

Promotes a lifestyle free from animal products and encourages sustainability.

November 1

Formation Day of Karnataka, Kerala, Haryana, Punjab, and Madhya Pradesh

Commemorates the creation of these Indian states in 1956 and 1966.

November 5

World Tsunami Awareness Day

Raises awareness about tsunami risk and disaster preparedness.

November 7

National Cancer Awareness Day (India)

Promotes early detection and prevention of cancer across India.

November 8

World Radiography Day

Honors radiologists and emphasizes safe use of radiation in healthcare.

November 9

Legal Services Day (India)

Marks the enactment of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.

November 10

World Science Day for Peace and Development

Highlights the role of science in creating a sustainable world.

November 11

National Education Day (India)

Birth anniversary of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, India’s first Education Minister.

November 12

World Pneumonia Day

Raises awareness to combat pneumonia and promote child health.

November 13

World Kindness Day

Encourages acts of kindness and compassion globally.

November 14

Children’s Day (India)

Marks the birth anniversary of Jawaharlal Nehru, promoting child welfare.

November 14

World Diabetes Day

Highlights the global rise of diabetes and prevention measures.

November 16

National Press Day (India)

Celebrates a free and responsible press in a democracy.

November 17

International Students’ Day

Promotes global education and unity among students.

November 19

International Men’s Day

Focuses on men’s mental health and equality.

November 19

World Toilet Day

Promotes sanitation and hygiene awareness globally.

November 20

Universal Children’s Day

Promotes international togetherness and children’s welfare.

November 21

World Television Day

Recognizes television’s impact on communication and development.

November 25

International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women

Advocates for women’s safety and gender equality.

November 26

Constitution Day (India)

Marks the adoption of the Indian Constitution in 1949.

November 29

International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People

Expresses global support for peace in Palestine.

November 30

St. Andrew’s Day

Celebrated in parts of India and the world in honor of Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland.

Important Days in November 2025 Explained

The major notable days in November 2025 have been discussed here based on their background and significances:

November 1- State Formation Day

On this day, the Indian states of Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh celebrate their formation in 1956 and 1966 . It commemorates the linguistic reorganization of states under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, and later, the creation of Haryana and Punjab in 1966. Although the years of formation, reorganization were different, the date has been the same for each of them.

November 7- National Cancer Awareness Day

Observed to spread awareness about the importance of early diagnosis and preventive healthcare in fighting cancer. It was first introduced by the Indian government in 2014 to honor Marie Curie’s birth anniversary, who pioneered research on radioactivity.

November 10- World Science Day for Peace and Development

Celebrated to emphasize the role of science in promoting peace, sustainable development, and improving lives. It encourages trust in scientific methods and global collaboration.

November 11- National Education Day

This day marks the birth anniversary of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, a key freedom fighter and India’s first Minister of Education. It emphasizes education as the foundation of empowerment and development in the country.

November 14- Children’s Day and World Diabetes Day

In India, Children’s Day honors Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s affection for children and his vision for their education. On the same day, World Diabetes Day raises global awareness about diabetes management and prevention.

November 16- National Press Day

Celebrated by journalists and media institutions, this day signifies the importance of a free press in maintaining democracy and truth. It marks the foundation of the Press Council of India in 1966.

November 19- International Men’s Day and World Toilet Day

International Men’s Day recognizes men’s positive contributions and emphasizes mental health and gender equality. World Toilet Day highlights the need for clean sanitation facilities and hygiene for public health.

November 20- Universal Children’s Day

Established by the United Nations, it promotes child rights, welfare, and education worldwide. It complements India’s own Children’s Day celebrated earlier in the month.

November 25- International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women

This day focuses on ending gender-based violence and protecting women’s human rights. It reminds governments and communities to ensure safety and equality for all women.

November 26- Constitution Day (India)

Constitution Day or Samvidhan Divas honors the adoption of India’s Constitution on 26 November 1949. It reminds citizens of their rights, duties, and the values enshrined by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and the Constituent Assembly.

Important Days in November 2025 FAQs

Q1: Why is November 14 celebrated as Children’s Day in India?

Ans: It marks the birth anniversary of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, who was deeply fond of children and emphasized their education and welfare.

Q2: What is the significance of November 26 in Indian history?

Ans: November 26 is observed as Constitution Day, marking the adoption of the Indian Constitution in 1949.

Q3: Which states in India celebrate Formation Day on November 1?

Ans: Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh celebrate their State Formation Day on November 1.

Q4: What is the theme of World Vegan Day 2025?

Ans: The 2025 theme for World Vegan Day 2025 is “Veganism and its positive impact on the planet, animals, and human health”

Q5: Why is November called an important month for awareness campaigns?

Ans: November includes global days for health, education, gender equality, and environmental awareness, making it a key month for public campaigns.

Representation of the People Act 1951, Features, Important Sections

December 2, 2025
Representation of the People Act 1951

The Representation of the People Act,1951 (RPA 1951) is one of the most important laws governing India’s democratic framework. Enacted after independence, it provides the legal foundation for the conduct of free and fair elections to the Parliament and State Legislatures. The Act deals with qualifications and disqualifications of candidates, the registration and recognition of political parties, and the resolution of election disputes.

It also lays down the powers and responsibilities of the Election Commission in ensuring transparency and accountability in the electoral process. Key provisions such as Section 8 (disqualification of convicted members) and Section 29A (registration of political parties) make it a cornerstone of India’s electoral democracy.

Representation of the People Act 1951

The Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RPA) is a key law that governs India’s electoral framework, ensuring free, fair, and transparent elections. Enacted in 1951, it lays down rules for conducting elections to Parliament and State Legislatures, defines eligibility and disqualification criteria for candidates, and regulates the registration and functioning of political parties. The Act empowers the Election Commission to enforce these provisions and maintain the integrity of India’s democratic process. The table below summarizes the major sections and their significance.

Representation of the People Act 1951

Section

Highlight

Section 8

Lists disqualification grounds based on criminal convictions, promoting ethical public office.

Section 29A

Allows political parties to register with the Election Commission, essential for electoral participation.

Section 123

Defines corrupt practices, including bribery and undue influence, to maintain election integrity.

Section 33

Discusses candidate nomination procedures and associated eligibility criteria.

Section 62

Ensures voting rights for individuals listed on the electoral roll, strengthening voter inclusion.

Section 100

Specifies conditions for voiding elections due to malpractice or eligibility issues.

Section 126
  • 48 hours before the polling ends or concludes, displaying any election matter by television or similar apparatus in a constituency is prohibited.
  • Section 126 is not applicable to the print media, news portals and social media
  • Section 126A prohibits the conduct of exit poll and dissemination of its results during the period mentioned.

Section 77

Regulates election expenses to prevent financial misuse and maintain fairness.

Representation of the People Act 1951 Features

Representation of the People Act 1951, lays down the legal framework for conducting elections in India. It ensures transparency, fairness, and accountability in the democratic process. The table below highlights the key features and provisions of the Act, explaining how each section contributes to free and fair elections.

Representation of the People Act 1951 Features

Section/Aspect

Purpose/Description

Election Procedures

Details the conduct of elections, procedures for resolving disputes, and handling seat vacancies.

Qualifications and Disqualifications

Defines criteria for candidate eligibility, focusing on moral standards and criminal background.

Electoral Offenses

Lists offenses such as bribery, impersonation, and undue influence to ensure fair elections.

Role of Election Commission

Outlines the powers and responsibilities of the Election Commission in supervising and maintaining ethical electoral processes.

Representation of the People Act 1951 Important Sections

The Representation of the People Act 1951, ensures ethical conduct, transparency, and accountability in India’s electoral system. The following table summarizes important sections, their purpose, and related electoral provisions.

Representation of the People Act 1951 Important Sections

Section / Provision

Description / Purpose

Details / Sub-Clauses

Section 8

Disqualifications for MPs and MLAs based on criminal convictions, ensuring ethical standards.

  

Section 8(1)

Conviction under specific acts leads to disqualification.

Includes Indian Penal Code, Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955, Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 1967, Prevention of Corruption Act 1988, Prevention of Terrorism Act 2002; disqualified for 6 years from conviction or 6 years post-release.

Section 8(2)

Conviction for offences related to social welfare laws.
  • Prevention of hoarding/profiteering, 
  • Adulteration of food/drugs, 
  • Dowry Prohibition Act 1961.

Section 8(3)

Conviction for other offences with imprisonment ≥ 2 years.

Disqualified from conviction date + 6 years post-release.

Section 8(4)

Earlier provision for appeal allowed retention of seat.

Struck down by Supreme Court in 2013 (Lily Thomas case).

Section 29A

Registration of political parties.

Parties must register with Election Commission to contest elections.

Election Offences

Defines corrupt and illegal practices during elections.
  • Bribery or offering gratification to electors or candidates.
  • Interference with free exercise of electoral rights.
  • Appeals based on religion, race, caste, community, or language. 
  • Promoting enmity or hatred among classes. - Propagation or glorification of sati. 
  • Publishing false statements about candidates.
  • Booth capturing. 
  • Using government assistance for electoral advantage.
Also Check Other Posts
Important Articles of Indian Constitution 9th Schedule
Schedules of Indian Constitution Anti Defection Law
5th Schedule Preamble of the Indian Constitution
6th Schedule

Representation of the People Act 1951 FAQs

Q1: What is the Representation of the People Act 1951?

Ans: It regulates elections in India, defining procedures, qualifications, disqualifications, and conduct for Parliament, State Assemblies, and offices like President and Vice-President.

Q2: What is the main objective of the Act?

Ans: To ensure free, fair, and transparent elections, prevent electoral malpractices, and regulate political representation across Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.

Q3: Who can vote under the Act?

Ans: All Indian citizens aged 18 or above, registered in the electoral rolls, and not disqualified by law can vote.

Q4: Who is disqualified from contesting elections?

Ans: Convicted criminals, bankrupts, persons of unsound mind, or those holding certain offices are disqualified under the Act.

Q5: What are the key provisions of the Act?

Ans: Provisions include voter registration, conduct of elections, qualification and disqualification of candidates, electoral offences, and dispute resolution mechanisms.

World Trade Organisation, Objectives, Evolution, Principles

December 2, 2025
World Trade Organisation

The World Trade Organisation is responsible for managing global trade by ensuring fair and free trade, resolving related disputes and working towards ensuring economic growth. In this article, we are going to cover all details about the World Trade Organisation, its history, objectives, structure and other relevant information. 

World Trade Organisation Overview

The World Trade Organisation was established in 1995 as a global multilateral organisation that would make and implement rules for trading between nations of the world. 

  • The responsibility of the WTO is to promote and manage free trade. 
  • It acts as a forum for governments across the world to negotiate free trade agreements and manage trade disputes. 
  • Helps producers conduct international business smoothly. 
  • At present, the WTO consists of
    • 164 members (including European Union), and
    • 23 observer governments (like Iraq, Iran, Bhutan, Libya etc).

Key Objectives of WTO

The objectives of World Trade Organisations are: 

  • To establish and uphold rules governing international trade, with the aim of promoting global economic growth and generating employment opportunities.
  • To serve as a platform for negotiations and oversight, facilitating further trade liberalisation by lowering trade barriers and ensuring fair, non-discriminatory practices.
  • To provide a structured mechanism for resolving trade disputes, thereby fostering global peace, economic predictability, and geopolitical stability.
  • To enhance the transparency of trade-related decision-making, empowering smaller and developing nations with a stronger voice in global trade governance.
  • To collaborate with other key international economic institutions, ensuring coordinated and effective management of the global economy.
  • To support developing countries in fully leveraging the benefits of the global trading system, thus reducing their operational costs and improving integration into global markets.
  • To promote good governance by minimising arbitrariness, encouraging the use of clear, consistent, and rules-based approaches in trade administration.

World Trade Organisation Evolution

The World Trade Organisation’s history dates back to 1945 and officially came into existence in 1995. 

Idea of International Trade Organisation (ITO)

  • The idea behind creating the International Trade Organisation came through the western countries to manage the trade side of international economic cooperation. 
  • Apart from “Bretton woods” and UN specialised agency, WTO became the third international institution in the world. 
  • However, the major countries, including the USA, failed to get this treaty ratified in their respective legislatures.
    • Thus, this treaty became a dead letter.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947 and came into effect on January 1, 1948, with the signing of 23 founding countries in Geneva. Its primary objective was to gradually eliminate import quotas and reduce tariffs on merchandise trade to promote freer and fairer global trade.

From 1948 to 1994, GATT served as the primary framework governing most of the world’s trade in goods. It laid the foundation for multilateral trade rules and negotiations across successive trade rounds.

Uruguay Round (1986–1994)

As international trade became more complex, GATT’s mechanisms proved inadequate to address emerging issues in services, intellectual property, and dispute resolution.

The Uruguay Round, held from 1986 to 1994, was the most comprehensive and ambitious of all GATT trade negotiations. It not only expanded the scope of trade talks but also led to the creation of a more robust global trade body—the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The WTO Era

The WTO was formally established through the Marrakesh Agreement in April 1994, during a ministerial conference held in Marrakesh, Morocco. This marked a transition from GATT to the WTO regime, which came into force on January 1, 1995.

The original GATT contracting parties automatically became members of the WTO. The agreement was subsequently opened for accession by other countries, making the WTO a truly global organisation for regulating international trade in goods, services, and intellectual property.

India and World Trade Organisation 

India was a member of GATT since 1948 and also the founding member of the World Trade Organisation. 

Organisational Structure of WTO 

The organisational structure of WTO consists of the Ministerial Conference, General Council, director general, trade policy review body etc. 

Ministerial Council (MC)

  • The Ministerial Conference is the topmost structural organisation of WTO and acts as a supreme governing body that makes all the decisions. It consists of all ministers of trade of all countries who are also the members of WTO. 
  • The conference is conducted every 2 years.

General Council (GC) 

The WTO General Council is located in Geneva and is considered to the highest level decision making body. The council meets frequently to carry out the functions of World Trade Organisation. All the representatives are members of the council and they act on behalf of the Ministerial Conference. The Council is also responsible for acting as the Dispute Settlement Body as well as the Trade Policy Review Body. 

Three Councils of WTO 

The General Council has three WTO councils under it. These councils are: 

  • Council for Trade in Goods,
  • Council for Trade in Services, and
  • Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) 

Director General (DG)

  • The administration of the World Trade Organisation is conducted by the Secretariat, headed by the Director General (DG)
  • The Director General (DG) is appointed by the Ministerial Conference (MC) for a tenure of four years.
  • The Director General (DG) is assisted by the four Deputy Directors from different member countries.

Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB)

  • The General Council meets as the Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB) to undertake trade policy reviews of members under the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) and to consider the Director-General’s regular reports on trade policy development.
  • Thus, the TPRB is open to all the members of the WTO.

Dispute Settlement Body (DSB)

  • The General Council convenes itself as the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) to deliberate upon and resolve the disputes among the WTO members.
  • Such disputes may arise w.r.t. any agreement contained in the Final Act of the Uruguay Round that is subject to the Understanding of Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU).
  • The DSB has the authority to:
    • establish dispute settlement panels,
    • refer matters to arbitration,
    • adopt panel, Appellate Body and arbitration reports,
    • maintain surveillance over the implementation of recommendations and rulings contained in such reports, and
    • authorized suspension of concessions in the event of non-compliance with those recommendations and rulings.

Appellate Body

  • The Appellate Body was established in 1995 under Article 17 of the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU).
  • The DSB appoints persons to serve on the Appellate Body for a term of four years.
  • It is a standing (permanent) body of 7 persons that hears appeals from reports issued by panels in disputes brought by members of the World Trade Organisation.
  • The Appellate Body can uphold, reverse or modify the legal findings and conclusions of a panel.
  • Once adopted by the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), the reports of the Appellate Body must be accepted by the parties to the dispute.
  • The seat of the Appellate Body is in Geneva, Switzerland.

Principles of World Trade Organisation

The WTO is guided by a set of foundational principles that aim to ensure a fair, predictable, and transparent international trading system. These principles are enshrined in the WTO Agreement and serve as the bedrock for global trade governance.

1. Non-Discrimination

Non-discrimination lies at the heart of the WTO’s multilateral trading system. It is intended to prevent unfair treatment among trading partners and promote equal opportunity in global trade.

a. Most Favoured Nation (MFN)

  • Under the MFN principle, if a WTO member grants a trade advantage (like a reduced customs duty) to one country, it must extend the same benefit to all other WTO members.

  • This principle applies to trade in goods, services, and aspects of intellectual property.

Exceptions to MFN:

  • Formation of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and customs unions.

  • Special market access for developing and least developed countries (LDCs).

  • Anti-dumping and countervailing measures against unfair trade practices.

  • Limited discriminatory treatment in services under specific conditions.

b. National Treatment

  • Once goods have entered a country, they must be treated no less favourably than domestically-produced goods.

  • This applies equally to services and intellectual property (trademarks, patents, copyrights).

  • The principle ensures imported and local products compete on a level playing field after entry into the domestic market.

2. Free Trade and Market Access

One of the WTO’s primary objectives is to liberalise trade by reducing barriers to market entry.

a. Tariff Barriers

  • Countries commit to reducing and "binding" tariffs at agreed levels.

  • A bound tariff is a legally committed ceiling beyond which the tariff cannot be raised.

  • The Uruguay Round led to extensive tariff binding across sectors.

b. Non-Tariff Barriers

  • These include quotas, lack of transparency in trade policies, complex customs procedures, technical standards, and government procurement biases.

  • WTO rules discourage or prohibit such barriers unless justified under specific conditions.

  • Only duties, taxes, and safeguards are permitted under defined circumstances.

3. Promoting Fair Competition

WTO rules ensure that trade is conducted in a fair, predictable, and transparent manner.

  • Equal treatment is mandated through MFN and national treatment provisions.

  • The system guards against unfair trade practices such as dumping (selling goods at unfairly low prices) and the use of export subsidies that distort competition.

  • Members can impose anti-dumping duties or countervailing measures after due investigation and adherence to WTO norms.

4. Special and Differential Treatment for Developing Countries

Recognising disparities in economic development, WTO agreements provide flexibility and support to developing and least-developed countries.

Key Provisions Include:

  • Longer timelines for implementing commitments.

  • Preferential market access in developed countries.

  • Technical assistance and capacity-building measures.

  • Requirements for developed nations to consider the developmental impact of their trade policies on poorer countries.

WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism 

The WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism  includes members of World Trade Organisation. The detailed process of Dispute Settlement by the World Trade Organisation is as follows:

Process of Dispute Settlement 

  • First stage: Consultation up to 60 days, aimed at settling the trade disputes through conciliation.
  • Second stage (up to 1 year): In case the consultations fails to settle the dispute, the DSB forms a Dispute Panel.
    • The report of the Dispute Panel can be rejected only through consensus among the DSB members.
  • Appeal Stage: Either side can appeal the Dispute Panel’s ruling.
    • Each appeal is heard by three members of a permanent 7-membered Appellate Body.
    • The Appellate Body can uphold, reverse or modify the Dispte Panel’s rulings.
    • The Dispute Settlement Body has to accept or reject the report of the Appeallate Body; Rejection of its report is only possible by consensus.

Present Issue with Dispute Settlement Mechanism

  • The sanctioned strength of the Appellate Body (AB) is seven members.
  • The Appellate Body members are appointed through consensus among the member countries.
  • The AB must have a quorum of 3 judges to hear a particular case.
  • The US has been blocking appointments of members to the Appellate Body (AB) as it feels that the AB is “unfair” and biased against it.
  • Since December 10, 2019, the AB has been left with only 1 Judge and the quorum required to hear a case is minimum 3 judges. Hence, the Appellate Body has become dysfunctional.

World Trade Organisation FAQs

Q1: What is the World Trade Organization?

Ans: The World Trade Organization (WTO) is a global intergovernmental body that regulates international trade rules among member nations.

Q2: What are the 6 objectives of WTO?

Ans: The WTO aims to promote free trade, ensure non-discrimination, resolve trade disputes, enhance transparency, support developing countries, and cooperate with global economic institutions.

Q3: Who established the WTO?

Ans: The WTO was established by the participating countries of the Uruguay Round through the Marrakesh Agreement in 1994.

Q4: Is India a member of WTO?

Ans: Yes, India is a founding member of the WTO and has been part of the global trading system since its inception in 1995.

Q5: When was WTO established?

Ans: The WTO was officially established on 1st January 1995.

42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, Provisions, Key Details

December 2, 2025
42nd Constitutional Amendment Act

42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 is the most important constitutional amendment and also known as the ‘mini constitution’ of India. Indira Gandhi was heading the Indian Congress when these changes were implemented. In this article, we are going to cover the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 and its importance and major changes that were implemented. 

42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976

The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 introduced some major changes in the Constitution of India. Also known as the constitution act, 1976, this act made the following changes in the constitution: 

  • Reduce the power of the supreme court and the high court
  • Laid down fundamental duties for citizens
  • Terms- socialist, secular and integrity were added to the Preamble 

42nd Constitutional Amendment as a ‘Mini Constitution’

The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act 1976 altered the basic structure of the Constitution of India. The changes include: 

Changes in Provisions by the 42nd Amendment Act

Details of the Amendment

Preamble
  • For the words “Sovereign Democratic Republic”, the words “Sovereign
    Socialist Secular Democratic Republic” was substituted
  • For the words “unity of the Nation”, the words “unity and
    integrity of the Nation” was substituted.

7th Schedule

Transferred five subjects from the state list to the concurrent list:

  1. Education
  2. Forests
  3. Weights & Measures
  4. Protection of Wild Animals and Birds
  5. Administration of Justice

Article 51A

10 Fundamental Duties added for the citizens. (The Fundamental Duties of citizens were added upon the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee that was constituted by the government in 1976)

Parliament
  1. Made President bound to the advice of the cabinet
  2. Allowed Centre to deploy central forces in State to deal with the conflicting situations of law and order (Article 257A)
  3. Gave special discretionary powers to the speaker of  the Lok Sabha and Prime Minister (Article 329A)
  4. Directive Principles were given precedence over Fundamental Rights and any law made to this effect by the Parliament was kept beyond the scope of judicial review by the Court

Judicial Powers of HC

Curtailed the judicial review power of the High Courts

Articles 323A and 323B, Part XIV-A 

Part XIV-A added entitled as ‘Tribunals dealing with Administrative matters’ and ‘Tribunals for other matters’

DPSPs 

Three new DPSPs (Directive Principles of State Policy) were added to the existing list of DPSPs and one was amended:

  1. To secure opportunities for the healthy development of children (Article 39)
  2. To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to the poor (Article 39 A)
  3. To take steps to secure the participation of workers in the management of industries (Article 43 A)
  4. To protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife (Article 48 A)

42nd Constitutional Amendment Act FAQs

Q1: What is the 42nd amendment of India?

Ans: It is the Constitutional (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976, which made extensive changes to the Indian Constitution during the Emergency.

Q2: Which words are added in the Preamble by the 42nd amendment?

Ans: The words "Socialist", "Secular", and "Integrity" were added to the Preamble.

Q3: When was the 42nd amendment Act implemented?

Ans: It came into effect on 3 January 1977.

Q4: What were the major changes of the 42nd Constitutional Amendment?

Ans: It added Fundamental Duties, strengthened Directive Principles, curtailed judicial review, extended legislatures’ terms, and altered the Preamble.

Q5: Why is the 42nd amendment act also called a mini constitution?

Ans: The 42nd Constitutional amendment brought the most comprehensive and wide-ranging changes to the Constitution since its adoption.

Marginal Standing Facility (MSF), Objectives, Significance

December 2, 2025
Marginal Standing Facility

Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) is an overnight emergency borrowing window created by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to help scheduled commercial banks when they face a sudden shortage of funds. MSF is used only when inter-bank liquidity dries up completely or when banks are unable to borrow through the regular Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) or call money market. 

The MSF was introduced as part of the 2011-12 monetary policy reform, which aimed to strengthen India’s monetary framework and reduce volatility in short-term interest rates.

Under MSF, banks borrow money from the RBI by dipping into their Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) holdings, which is normally not allowed under regular repo operations. The borrowing is always at a penal rate; that is, the interest charged is higher than the repo rate. This higher rate is called the MSF Rate.

Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) Objectives

The Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) aims to reduce volatility in overnight interest rates and ensure smooth monetary transmission in the banking system. It also provides banks with a safety valve for emergency liquidity when other borrowing avenues dry up.

  • Stabilise Overnight Interest Rates: Prevent sudden spikes in the call money market.
  • Support Monetary Policy Transmission: Maintain a clear and predictable policy rate corridor.
  • Provide Emergency Liquidity: Help banks access funds when inter-bank markets face stress.
  • Strengthen Financial Stability: Reduce panic during liquidity shortages and maintain system confidence.
  • Ensure Smooth Functioning of LAF: Act as the upper ceiling of the RBI’s interest rate corridor.

Difference Between Marginal Standing Facility and Repo Rate

The Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) and Repo Rate are key RBI tools used to manage liquidity in the banking system, but they differ in purpose, interest rate level, and borrowing conditions. The Difference Between Marginal Standing Facility and Repo Rate have been shared below.

Difference Between Marginal Standing Facility and Repo Rate
Category Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) Repo Rate

Definition

An overnight emergency borrowing facility for banks from RBI.

The rate at which RBI lends short-term funds to banks against government securities.

Interest Rate Level

Higher than the Repo Rate (penalty rate).

Lower than MSF; primary policy rate.

Borrowing Limit

Up to 1% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).

No strict NDTL limit; depends on collateral and liquidity operations.

Collateral Requirement

Banks can borrow even if they dip into their SLR quota.

Banks must maintain full SLR and borrow by pledging excess government securities.

Impact on Inflation

Indirect; discourages excessive borrowing due to higher cost.

Direct; increase or decrease directly affects lending rates and inflation.

Eligible Institutions

Scheduled commercial banks only.

Banks and financial institutions approved by RBI.

Borrowing Tenure

Overnight.

Overnight to short-term (depending on operations).

Eligibility Criteria for Banks under MSF

Banks must meet specific RBI conditions to access the Marginal Standing Facility, ensuring only financially sound and compliant institutions use this emergency window. The criteria focus on regulatory requirements, asset quality, and operational readiness.

  • Only Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs) are eligible to borrow under MSF.
  • Banks must maintain the mandated Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) before accessing MSF.
  • Banks must have valid, unencumbered government securities for collateral.
  • The borrowing is allowed only after exhausting normal Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) options.
  • Banks must comply with RBI prudential norms, including CRR maintenance and asset quality guidelines.
  • The facility can be used only for overnight borrowing.

Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) and Its Role in Controlling Inflation

The Marginal Standing Facility helps the RBI tighten liquidity in the banking system, making borrowing costlier for banks during high-inflation periods.

  • Acts as the Upper Limit of the Interest Rate Corridor: When the RBI increases the MSF rate, overnight borrowing becomes expensive, reducing liquidity.
  • Discourages Excess Lending: Higher MSF rates force banks to borrow less and lend cautiously, lowering money supply growth.
  • Strengthens Monetary Tightening: During an inflation surge, MSF is used alongside repo hikes to reinforce the overall tightening stance.
  • Controls Volatility in Money Markets: Stable short-term rates help prevent sudden liquidity surges that can worsen inflation.

Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) FAQs

Q1: What is the Marginal Standing Facility (MSF)?

Ans: MSF is an emergency borrowing window through which scheduled commercial banks can borrow overnight funds from the RBI at a rate higher than the repo rate.

Q2: When was MSF introduced?

Ans: MSF was introduced by the RBI in 2011–12 as part of monetary policy reforms.

Q3: Why is the MSF rate higher than the repo rate?

Ans: It is deliberately kept 100 basis points (1%) above the repo rate to discourage routine use and ensure it remains a last-resort facility.

Q4: How much can banks borrow under MSF?

Ans: Banks can borrow up to 1% of their Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL) by dipping into their SLR holdings.

Q5: What securities do banks pledge under MSF?

Ans: Banks use government securities, including those from their SLR portfolio, as collateral.

Difference between Sea and Ocean, Area, Depth, Salinity

December 2, 2025
Difference between Sea and Ocean

The difference between Sea and Ocean falls majorly in their size, depth, salinity and geographical locations. Oceans and Seas are both saltwater bodies, but Oceans are vast, deep, globally connected water masses that cover a major part of Earth, regulate global climate, influence tides, support biodiversities and contain most of Earth’s water. Seas are smaller, shallower, more enclosed, and often coastal, with surfaces close to land, making them more accessible to humans and supportive of diverse coastal ecosystems.

Both play an important role in human activities like shipping, fishing and act as major mineral resources. The examples of Sea include: Mediterranean, Caribbean, Arabian, etc.; and Oceans include: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, etc.

Difference between Sea and Ocean

The Oceans are usually larger, deeper and have uniform salinity while Seas are smaller, shallow and have varying salinity due to the convergence of rivers. Oceans are continuous mass (eg: Pacific Ocean- ~165 million km²) and Seas are partially enclosed (eg: Red Sea- ~438,000 km²). The temperature of the Seas often fluctuates due to the effect of Land masses. The Oceans have major impact on climate regulation due to the hosting of currents like Gulf Stream, on the other hand Seas influence only local weathers. The Seas are vital for hubs of Ports/ trades and Oceans are crucial for Global Shipping and connecting the continents for trade or other purposes.

Difference between Sea and Ocean Comparison

The difference between Sea and Ocean can be discussed below based on the several parameters such as location, size, salinity, biodiversity, impact, and other features:

Difference between Sea and Ocean Comparison
Aspect Sea Ocean

Area

Seas are much smaller in size. Example: The Arabian Sea covers an area of ~3.862 million km²,

The Oceans are vast saltwater bodies covering ~71% of the earth and hold ~97.5% of total water. Eg: Pacific Ocean covers ~30% of the earth (largest).

Number

There are about 50-60 Seas in the world. Eg: Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Dead Sea, Arabian Sea, etc.

There are 5 Oceans in the world including- Pacific, Arctic, Atlantic, Indian and

Southern Ocean.

Depth

The seas are generally shallower and not as deep as Oceans. Many of them lie on the continents shelves, far from the oceans.

The oceans are deep and extend up to 11000 km beneath. The Challenger Deep is the deepest point located in the Mariana Trench of the Pacific Ocean.

Location

They are located near the continental regions, often enclosed within the landmass. Eg: Caspian Sea is landlocked entirely while Red Sea is partially enclosed.

They are located between the continents on the Earth and form a continuous saltwater body.

Water Volume

The volume of the water in the sea is much lower than that of the oceans. They hold only a small fraction of oceanic water due to less space. 

The volume of Oceanic Water is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers, accounting for about 97.5% of all the water on Earth

Salinity

The salinity of the seas often fluctuates. Evaporation leads to higher concentration of salts while inflow of river decreases the level of salinity. Eg: Dead Sea has 33.7% salinity (highest).

Salinity in oceaning water is usually uniform due to the transport of water from equator to the poles through oceanic currents. The average salinity is ~35 ppt (3.5%).

Water Current and Circulation

Seas have more restricted water movement; currents and mixing depend on connection with ocean and coastline shape.

Oceans feature large-scale global currents (thermohaline circulation) that distribute heat and regulate global climate.

Climate Influence

It has influence on the regional or local weather phenomenon including: coastal weather, humidity, storms near coastlines.

Oceans play a major role in regulating Earth’s climate by absorbing solar heat and distributing it globally.

Biodiversity & Ecosystem

They often support rich and diverse ecosystems. Eg: coral reefs, coastal fish, seaweed, because of shallow depths and sunlight.

They support a wide range of marine life including deep‑sea species adapted to high pressure, low light, vast zones, often independent of sunlight. Eg: Yeti Crabs, Gulper Eels, Anglerfish, etc.

Human Activities

These are near to the coasts thus are more accessible for fishing, ports, local trade, and human settlement along coastlines.

They are used for global shipping routes, long‑distance travel, and connect continents across vast distances.

Relation with Continents

Seas usually lie at the edges of continents or between islands and continents; they are coastal or marginal waters.

Oceans lie between continents, connecting them via water routes, and are not bound by continental edges.

Water Exchange/ Mixing

Seas may have limited exchange if partially enclosed, water movement may be restricted, leading to altered salinity, temperature or ecology.

Oceans have continuous mixing, exchange over vast connectivity and are part of a single global oceanic system.

Effects of Sunlight

Due to shallower depths, sunlight tends to penetrate more which allows photosynthesis, supporting coral reefs and abundant plants/ algae.

In oceans, deep zones often get little/ no sunlight. Therefore many deep‑sea species do not depend on photosynthesis (eg: Bacteria, Planktons, etc.).
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Difference between Sea and Ocean FAQs

Q1: What is the main Difference between Sea and Ocean?

Ans: The main Difference between Sea and Ocean is size and depth. Oceans are vast and deep, while seas are smaller, shallower, and often enclosed by land.

Q2: Which is deeper between a Sea and an Ocean?

Ans: Oceans are much deeper, with some trenches reaching over 10,900 meters, while seas lie mostly on continental shelves and remain comparatively shallow.

Q3: Do Seas and Oceans differ in salinity?

Ans: Yes. Oceans have more uniform salinity, while seas show varying salinity due to river inflow, evaporation, and limited water exchange.

Q4: Which influences global climate more: Sea or Ocean?

Ans: Oceans influence global climate by distributing heat through worldwide currents, while seas impact only regional or coastal climate.

Q5: Are Seas part of Oceans?

Ans: Yes. Most seas are extensions or partially enclosed parts of oceans, connected by straits or channels but smaller and more land-influenced.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India, List, Map, Area, Importance

December 2, 2025
Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India are special places where animals can live safely without human interference. These protected areas are designed to keep the natural habitats of animals safe, where activities like hunting, poaching, and trapping are strictly forbidden. India is home to a wide variety of these protected spaces, from lush forests and dense jungles to riverbanks and majestic mountains. Each sanctuary reflects the country’s commitment to preserving its incredible wildlife and diverse landscapes.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India is a specially protected area dedicated to the preservation of both flora and fauna. These sanctuaries are established as natural habitats where tourism is typically restricted, focusing on undisturbed conservation. The inception of these protected zones began with the Wildlife Protection Act of 1947, with further reinforcements introduced through the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, which empowered state governments to officially designate ecologically significant regions as sanctuaries.

India now boasts approximately 553 wildlife sanctuaries that collectively cover around 119,776 square kilometers. Among these, 51 are designated as tiger reserves, primarily serving as safe place for Bengal tigers. Classified under IUCN Category IV, these sanctuaries aim to safeguard ecosystems with high ecological, geomorphologic, and natural significance, reinforcing India's commitment to wildlife preservation.

List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

The following table provides an updated List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India, specifying their respective states and union territories along with the area they cover.

List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

S.No.

State & UT

State Area (km²)

No. of Wildlife Sanctuary

Area (km²)

% of State Area

1.

Andhra Pradesh

160229

13

6771.40

4.23

2.

Arunachal Pradesh

83743

13

7614.56

9.09

3.

Assam

78438

17

1728.95

2.20

4.

Bihar

94163

12

2851.67

3.03

5.

Chhattisgarh

135191

11

3760.28

2.78

6.

Goa

3702

6

647.91

17.50

7.

Gujarat

196022

23

16618.42

8.48

8.

Haryana

44212

7

118.21

0.27

9.

Himachal Pradesh

55673

28

6115.97

10.99

10.

Jharkhand

79714

11

1955.82

2.45

11.

Karnataka

191791

38

8216.69

4.28

12.

Kerala

38863

18

2156.21

5.55

13.

Madhya Pradesh

308245

24

7046.19

2.29

14.

Maharashtra

307713

49

7861.70

2.55

15.

Manipur

22327

7

708.14

3.17

16.

Meghalaya

22429

4

94.11

0.42

17.

Mizoram

21081

9

1359.75

6.45

18.

Nagaland

16579

4

43.91

0.26

19.

Odisha

155707

19

7094.65

4.56

20.

Punjab

50362

13

326.60

0.65

21.

Rajasthan

342239

25

5592.38

1.63

22.

Sikkim

7096

7

399.10

5.62

23.

Tamil Nadu

130058

33

7096.54

5.46

24.

Telangana

114840

9

5672.70

4.94

25.

Tripura

10486

4

603.64

5.76

26.

Uttar Pradesh

240928

26

5822.20

2.42

27.

Uttarakhand

53483

7

2690.12

5.03

28.

West Bengal

88752

16

1440.18

1.62

29.

Andaman & Nicobar

8249

97

395.60

4.80

30.

Chandigarh

114

2

26.01

22.82

31.

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

491

1

92.17

18.77

32.

Daman & Diu

112

1

2.19

1.96

33.

Delhi

1483

1

19.61

1.32

34.

Jammu & Kashmir

163090

14

1815.04

1.11

35.

Ladakh

59146

2

9000.00

15.22

36.

Lakshadweep

32

1

0.01

0.03

37.

Puducherry

480

1

3.90

0.81

 

TOTAL

3287263

573

123762.56

3.76

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Map

The Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Map highlights the locations of over 570 Wildlife Sanctuaries across India including deserts and wetlands to forests and mangroves. Major clusters are visible in states like Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Kerala, and Madhya Pradesh, as well as the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Map

Largest Wildlife Sanctuary of India

The Largest Wildlife Sanctuary of India is Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary which covers an area of approx 7,506km2. This sanctuary is located in the Great Rann of Kutch in Kutch district of Gujarat. The Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary includes a variety of seasonal saline wetlands, mudflats, desert areas, and hilly islands which is habitat for both wildlife and ecological conservation.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India State Wise List

Below is the complete List of Wildlife Sanctuaries in India according to the states.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India State Wise List

S No.

States

Wildlife Sanctuaries

1.

Assam

Nambor Wildlife Sanctuary

Dihing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary

East Karbi Anglong Wildlife Sanctuary

Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary

Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary

2.

Bihar

Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

Gautam Budha Wildlife Sanctuary

Pant (Rajgir) Wildlife Sanctuary

Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary

3.

Chhatisgarh

Bhairamgarh Wildlife Sanctuary

Badalkhol Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhoramdev Wildlife Sanctuary

Udanti Wild Buffalo Wildlife Sanctuary

4.

Goa

Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary

Madei Wildlife Sanctuary

5.

Gujarat

Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary

Porbandar Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Jambugodha Wildlife Sanctuary

Wild Ass Wildlife Sanctuary

Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuary

Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Sasan Gir Sanctuary

Mitiyala Wildlife Sanctuary

6.

Haryana

Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary

N Khaparwas Wildlife Sanctuary

Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary

7.

Himachal Pradesh

Bandli Wildlife Sanctuary

Daranghati Wildlife Sanctuary

Dhauladhar Wildlife Sanctuary

Talra Wildlife Sanctuary

Pong Dam Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Nargu Wildlife Sanctuary

9.

Jharkhand

Lawalong Wildlife Sanctuary

Parasnath Wildlife Sanctuary

Palkot Wildlife Sanctuary

10.

Karnataka

Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary

Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary

Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

11.

Kerala

Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary

Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary

Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary

Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary

Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary

12.

Madhya Pradesh

Bori Wildlife Sanctuary

Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Ken Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary

National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary

Orcha Wildlife Sanctuary

13.

Maharashtra

Koyana Wildlife Sanctuary

Painganga Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary

Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary

Great Indian Bustard Wildlife Sanctuary

14.

Manipur

Yangoupokpi-Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary

15.

Meghalaya

—

16.

Mizoram

Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary (TR)

Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary

Baghmara Pitcher Plant Wildlife Sanctuary

17.

Nagaland

Fakim Wildlife Sanctuary

Rangapahar Wildlife Sanctuary

18.

Odisha

Baisipalli Wildlife Sanctuary

Chilika (Nalaban) Wildlife Sanctuary

Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary

Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary

19.

Punjab

Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary

Harike Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Jhajjar Bacholi Wildlife Sanctuary

20.

Rajasthan

Keoladeo Bird Sanctuary

Jawahar Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary

Ramsagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Shergarh Wildlife Sanctuary

21.

Sikkim

Fambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary

Kitam Wildlife Sanctuary (Bird)

Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary

22.

Tamil Nadu

Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) Wildlife Sanctuary

Karaivetti Wildlife Sanctuary

Pulicat Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Vedanthangal Wildlife Sanctuary

Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary

23.

Tripura

Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary

Rowa Wildlife Sanctuary

Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary

24.

Uttarakhand

Askot Musk Deer Wildlife Sanctuary

Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary

Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary

Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary

Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary

25.

Uttar Pradesh

Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary

Ranipur Wildlife Sanctuary

Sohagibarwa Wildlife Sanctuary

Sur Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary

Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary

National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary

26.

West Bengal

Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary

Chintamani Kar Bird Sanctuary

Haliday Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Ballavpur Wildlife Sanctuary

Lothian Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Union Territory List

Below is the complete List of Wildlife Sanctuaries in India according to the Union Territory.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Union Territory List

S No.

UTs

Wildlife Sanctuary

1.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Bamboo Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Barren Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Chanel Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Peacock Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary

2.

Jammu & Kashmir

Gulmarg Wildlife Sanctuary

Limber Wildlife Sanctuary

Nandini Wildlife Sanctuary

3.

Lakshadweep

Pitti Wildlife Sanctuary (Bird)

4.

Dadra Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

Dadra & Nagar Haveli Wildlife Sanctuary

Fudam Wildlife Sanctuary

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Importance

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India serve as indispensable sanctuaries not only for animals but also for entire ecosystems. Acting as protected areas, these sanctuaries shield endangered species, natural landscapes, and even indigenous cultures from external threats. As vital resources for both nature and humanity, their conservation is crucial.

Protecting Endangered Species

Relocating endangered species is both costly and challenging, which is why preserving them in their natural habitat is essential. Sanctuaries enable these species to survive in an environment free from the risks of poaching and habitat destruction. Here, under the careful watch of sanctuary staff, species can breed, adapt, and grow their populations naturally. For researchers and biologists, sanctuaries provide a unique opportunity to study animal behaviors in a natural setting without disrupting their way of life.

Safeguarding Landscapes and Ecosystems

With urban expansion on the rise, natural forests are increasingly under threat. Wildlife Sanctuaries in India combat this trend by protecting forested areas and allowing natural landscapes to flourish. From dense forests to serene rivers, valleys, and waterfalls, these protected zones maintain essential features of our environment. 

Preserving Indigenous Cultures

For many indigenous tribes, sanctuaries represent both home and heritage. Certain tribes, such as Odisha’s Saara Adivasis, have coexisted with nature for centuries, sustaining forest ecosystems through traditional practices. Sanctuaries not only protect the biodiversity within them but also help preserve these communities' cultures and ways of life. Free from the pressures of urban development, these tribes can continue their customs, which, in turn, support forest conservation.

Conserving Biodiversity

Human activity has posed significant threats to global biodiversity. Sanctuaries offer a haven where ecosystems can exist without interference. Often described as in-situ conservation, sanctuaries maintain the natural balance, supporting ecosystems in their original configuration, thereby aiding species diversity and ecological health.

Promoting Ecotourism

Ecotourism has grown as more people seek meaningful travel experiences that support environmental conservation. Wildlife Sanctuaries in India provide a setting where people can observe animals in their natural, cage-free surroundings, often with their young, unhindered by the limitations of captivity. The revenue generated from ecotourism supports conservation efforts and aids in sanctuary development, creating a cycle where tourism funds the very habitats tourists come to appreciate.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India FAQs

Q1: How many wildlife sanctuaries are there in India?

Ans: There are 573 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 123,762.56 km2, which is 3.76% of the geographical area of the country (National Wildlife Database Centre, Nov. 2023).

Q2: Which is the 1st wildlife sanctuary in India?

Ans: The first wildlife sanctuary established in India is Manas National Park, also known as Manas Wildlife Sanctuary.

Q3: Which is the largest wildlife sanctuary of India?

Ans: The Ranthambore National Park, located in the state of Rajasthan, is the largest wildlife sanctuary in India. It serves as a national reserve for the tigers.

Q4: Which is the famous wildlife sanctuary in India?

Ans: Corbett National Park, located in Uttarakhand, is widely regarded as the oldest wildlife sanctuary in India, established in 1936. It's famous for its Bengal tiger population and was named after Jim Corbett.

Q5: Which is the largest wildlife sanctuary in the world?

Ans: Northeast Greenland National Park is the largest terrestrial protected area in the world, encompassing a massive 972,000 sq.km. (375,000 sq mi) in eastern Greenland.

Asian Countries, List, Capitals, Currency, Area, Population

December 2, 2025
Asian Countries

List of Asian Countries: Asia, the world's largest and most populous continent, with huge diversity. There are 48 countries in Asia, making it the largest and most populous continent in the world. It covers about 30% of the Earth’s land area and is home to nearly 60% of the global population. Each country tells a unique story through its capital city, currency, and regional identity. This article includes the List of Asian Countries, showcasing their capitals, regions, and other interesting details. 

Asian Countries

Asia, the world’s largest continent, spans 44.58 million square kilometres, covering 30% of Earth’s land area and hosting 60% of its population. Located in the northern and eastern hemispheres, it is bordered by the Pacific Ocean (east), Indian Ocean (south), and Arctic Ocean (north). It connects to Europe through the Ural Mountains and links to Africa via the Isthmus of Suez. Its immense diversity and strategic location make it a vital region in understanding global development, both historically and in contemporary times.

Asian Countries

Divisions

Countries

Central Asia

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan

Eastern Asia

China, Hong Kong, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Macau, Mongolia, Taiwan

Northern Asia

Russia

South-eastern Asia

Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Vietnam.

Southern Asia

Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.

Western Asia

Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, State of Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

List of Asian Countries, Capital and Currency

Asia, the Largest Continent in the World, is home to 48 countries, as recognized by the United Nations. Spanning a massive land area of over 44.58 million km², the continent showcases diverse geographical, cultural, and political characteristics.

Among these nations, Russia holds the title of the largest Asian country by area, covering approximately 13 million km², which accounts for 77% of Asia's landmass. Next in line is China, having an area of 9.6 million km². On the other hand, the smallest Asian nation is the island country of Maldives, which spans just 298 km².

List of Asian Countries, Capital and Currency

Country

Capital

Region

Currency

Population (2024 Estimate)

Afghanistan

Kabul

South Asia

Afghan Afghani (AFN)

41.8 million

Armenia

Yerevan

West Asia

Armenian Dram (AMD)

2.8 million

Azerbaijan

Baku

West Asia

Azerbaijani Manat (AZN)

10.4 million

Bahrain

Manama

West Asia

Bahraini Dinar (BHD)

1.8 million

Bangladesh

Dhaka

South Asia

Bangladeshi Taka (BDT)

171.2 million

Bhutan

Thimphu

South Asia

Bhutanese Ngultrum (BTN)

777,000

Brunei

Bandar Seri Begawan

Southeast Asia

Brunei Dollar (BND)

450,000

Cambodia

Phnom Penh

Southeast Asia

Cambodian Riel (KHR)

17.1 million

China

Beijing

East Asia

Chinese Yuan (CNY)

1.41 billion

Cyprus

Nicosia

West Asia

Euro (EUR)

1.2 million

Georgia

Tbilisi

West Asia

Georgian Lari (GEL)

3.7 million

India

New Delhi

South Asia

Indian Rupee (INR)

1.44 billion

Indonesia

Jakarta

Southeast Asia

Indonesian Rupiah (IDR)

278.7 million

Iran

Tehran

West Asia

Iranian Rial (IRR)

88.2 million

Iraq

Baghdad

West Asia

Iraqi Dinar (IQD)

45.6 million

Israel

Jerusalem

West Asia

Israeli New Shekel (ILS)

9.6 million

Japan

Tokyo

East Asia

Japanese Yen (JPY)

124.7 million

Jordan

Amman

West Asia

Jordanian Dinar (JOD)

11.4 million

Kazakhstan

Astana

Central Asia

Kazakhstani Tenge (KZT)

19.7 million

Kuwait

Kuwait City

West Asia

Kuwaiti Dinar (KWD)

4.5 million

Kyrgyzstan

Bishkek

Central Asia

Kyrgyzstani Som (KGS)

6.9 million

Laos

Vientiane

Southeast Asia

Lao Kip (LAK)

7.7 million

Lebanon

Beirut

West Asia

Lebanese Pound (LBP)

6.5 million

Malaysia

Kuala Lumpur

Southeast Asia

Malaysian Ringgit (MYR)

34.4 million

Maldives

Malé

South Asia

Maldivian Rufiyaa (MVR)

557,000

Mongolia

Ulaanbaatar

East Asia

Mongolian Tugrik (MNT)

3.5 million

Myanmar

Naypyidaw

Southeast Asia

Burmese Kyat (MMK)

55.5 million

Nepal

Kathmandu

South Asia

Nepalese Rupee (NPR)

31.1 million

North Korea

Pyongyang

East Asia

North Korean Won (KPW)

26.1 million

Oman

Muscat

West Asia

Omani Rial (OMR)

5.4 million

Pakistan

Islamabad

South Asia

Pakistani Rupee (PKR)

247.5 million

Palestine

Ramallah

West Asia

Israeli New Shekel (ILS)

5.4 million

Philippines

Manila

Southeast Asia

Philippine Peso (PHP)

119.9 million

Qatar

Doha

West Asia

Qatari Riyal (QAR)

2.9 million

Russia*

Moscow

Eurasia

Russian Ruble (RUB)

143.5 million

Saudi Arabia

Riyadh

West Asia

Saudi Riyal (SAR)

36.5 million

Singapore

Singapore

Southeast Asia

Singapore Dollar (SGD)

5.7 million

South Korea

Seoul

East Asia

South Korean Won (KRW)

51.7 million

Sri Lanka

Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

South Asia

Sri Lankan Rupee (LKR)

21.4 million

Syria

Damascus

West Asia

Syrian Pound (SYP)

19.8 million

Taiwan

Taipei

East Asia

New Taiwan Dollar (TWD)

23.6 million

Tajikistan

Dushanbe

Central Asia

Tajikistani Somoni (TJS)

10.1 million

Thailand

Bangkok

Southeast Asia

Thai Baht (THB)

71.9 million

Timor-Leste

Dili

Southeast Asia

US Dollar (USD)

1.4 million

Turkey*

Ankara

Eurasia

Turkish Lira (TRY)

88.6 million

Turkmenistan

Ashgabat

Central Asia

Turkmenistan Manat (TMT)

6.4 million

United Arab Emirates

Abu Dhabi

West Asia

UAE Dirham (AED)

10.2 million

Uzbekistan

Tashkent

Central Asia

Uzbekistani Som (UZS)

36.3 million

Vietnam

Hanoi

Southeast Asia

Vietnamese Dong (VND)

103.7 million

Yemen

Sana’a

West Asia

Yemeni Rial (YER)

34.3 million

Top 10 Asian Countries Area Wise

Water covers about 71% of the Earth's surface, while landmass occupies the remaining 29%. When it comes to the largest countries by land area in Asia, Russia takes the lead, spanning an impressive 17,125,000 square kilometres. The following are the Top 10 Asian Countries (Area Wise):

Top 10 Asian Countries Area Wise

Asian Countries

Area covered

Russia

17,125,000 ²km

Canada

9,984,670 ²km

China

9,572,900 ²km

United States of America

9,525,067 ²km

Brazil

8,515,767 ²km

Australia

7,692,202 ²km

India

3,166,391 ²km

Argentina

2,780,400 ²km

Kazakhstan

2,724,900 ²km

Algeria

2,381,741 ²km

Top 10 Asian Countries Population Wise

Asia contributes the most when it comes to the global population, accounting for approximately 60%. Among its vast nations, China and India stand out as the most populous. China, with its population of 1.37 billion, leads the continent. The following are the Top 10 Asian Countries (Population Wise):

Top 10 Asian Countries Population Wise

Asian Countries

Population

China

1.37 billion

India

1.299 billion

Indonesia

255.46 million

Pakistan

191.78 million

Bangladesh

158.76 million

Japan 

126.89 million

The Philippines

102.96 million

Vietnam

91.81 million

Iran

78.77 million

Turkey

78.21 million

Asian Countries and Populations

Asia, the largest and most populous continent on the Earth, is divided into six distinct geographical regions based on physiographic features. Each of these regions encompasses a variety of countries with diverse landscapes, cultures, and populations. Below is a List of Asian Countries categorised by their respective regions, along with details about their population sizes.

Asian Countries and Population

Regions

Asian Countries

Populations

Northern Asia

Russia (Siberia)

146,085,586 

Western Asia

Armenia

2,963,243

Azerbaijan

10,139,177

Bahrain

1,701,575

Cyprus

1,207,359

Georgia

3,989,167

Iran

83,992,949

Iraq

40,222,493

Israel

8,655,535

Jordan

10,203,134

Kuwait

4,270,571

Lebanon

6,825,445

Oman

5,106,626

Qatar

2,881,053

Saudi Arabia

34,813,871

State of Palestine

5,101,414

Syria

17,500,658

Turkey

84,339,067

United Arab Emirates

9,890,402

Jordan

10,203,134

Kuwait

4,270,571

Oman

5,106,626

Qatar

2,881,053

Saudi Arabia

34,813,871

State of Palestine

5,101,414

Syria

17,500,658

Turkey

84,339,067

United Arab Emirates

9,890,402

Yemen

29,825,964

Central Asia

Kazakhstan

18,776,707

Kyrgyzstan

6,524,195

Tajikistan

9,537,645

Turkmenistan

6,031,200

Uzbekistan

33,469,203

East Asia

China

1,439,323,776

China, Hong Kong SAR

7,496,981

China, Macao SAR

649,335

Japan

126,476,461

North Korea

25,778,816

South Korea

51,269,185

Mongolia

3,278,290

Taiwan

23,816,775

South Asia

Afghanistan

38,928,346

Bangladesh

164,689,383

Bhutan

771,608

India

1,380,004,385

Maldives

540,544

Nepal

29,136,808

Pakistan

220,892,340

Sri Lanka

21,413,249

Southeast Asia

Brunei Darussalam

437,479

Cambodia

16,718,965

Indonesia

273,523,615

Lao PDR

7,275,560

Malaysia

32,365,999

Myanmar (Burma)

54,409,800

Philippines

109,581,078

Singapore

5,850,342

Thailand

69,799,978

Timor-Leste (East Timor)

1,318,445

Vietnam

97,338,579

Asian Countries Map

This Asian Countries Map depicts a political division of Asia, showcasing all countries with clear boundaries and capitals. Asia, covering around 49.7 million km² (≈30 % of Earth's land area), is bordered by the Arctic Ocean in the north, Pacific Ocean to the east, Indian Ocean to the south, and connects with Europe via the Ural Mountains and Caucasus. Asia’s landmass features transcontinental nations such as Russia, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, which straddle both Europe and Asia.

asian-countries-map

Asian Countries Features

  1. Diverse Economies: Asia has economic powerhouses like China, Japan, and India, alongside emerging markets such as Vietnam and Bangladesh that are rapidly industrializing.
  2. Cultural Richness: Home to ancient civilizations and spiritual traditions, Asia features deep cultural roots in countries like China, India, Thailand, and Indonesia.
  3. Population Giants: China and India together make up more than one-third of the world’s population, with each exceeding one billion people.

Economic and Cultural Diversity in Asia

Economic and Cultural Diversity in Asia is remarkably diverse. The continent includes advanced economies like Japan, Singapore, and South Korea, alongside rapidly developing countries striving for growth. Culturally, Asia showcases a rich variety of languages, religions, traditions, and social norms, highlighting its vast historical and societal depth across regions.

Asian Countries FAQs

Q1: How many countries in Asia?

Ans: Currently, there are 48 countries in the Asian continent according to the United Nations.

Q2: List the top 3 countries in terms of area globally?

Ans: The top 3 countries in terms of area are- Russia, Canada and China.

Q3: List the top 3 countries in terms of population globally?

Ans: The top 3 countries in terms of population are- China, India and Indonesia.

Q4: What are the subregions of Asian Countries?

Ans: The six geographical regions of Asian countries are, namely, Northern Asia, Western Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southern Asia, and Southeast Asia.

Q5: Which countries are covered in Southern Asian Countries?

Ans: The countries covered under southern Asian countries are- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.

Difference between Nationalism and Patriotism, Meaning, Key Traits

December 2, 2025
Difference between Nationalism and Patriotism

The difference between Nationalism and Patriotism is often confusing yet contrasts the concept of describing an individual's relation and affection with the Nation. Nationalism and Patriotism, both involve attachment to the country but usually differ in the attitude, behaviour and consequences. According to scholars, Patriotism is linked with civic engagement, social trust, etc. while Nationalism is linked with exclusion, xenophobia, superiority, etc. These factors eventually shape politics, social unity and international cooperation of the respective country.

Difference between Nationalism and Patriotism

Patriotism is a love for one’s country which is rooted in the shared values, respect for pluralism and willingness to improve the nation. In contrast, Nationalism often involves asserting superiority over other nations and focusing on the National Interest rather than Global Cooperation. While Patriotism accepts the criticism and aims for common betterment, Nationalism on the other hand often leads to exclusion, hostility and intolerance towards outsiders. These major differences pave the way how societies respond to the issues of immigration, global governance, etc.

Difference between Nationalism and Patriotism Comparison

The comparative difference between Nationalism and Patriotism highlights the major focus of both to evaluate the political, global and social movements. The key differences are discussed below:

Difference between Nationalism and Patriotism Comparison
Aspect Nationalism Patriotism

Meaning

Nationalism focuses loyalty to one’s nation above all, often placing national identity, culture, or ethnicity at the centre. It demands commitment and prioritizes national interest over ethical or global concerns.

Patriotism refers to love for one’s country based on shared civic values, constitutional principles, and commitment to improving the nation. It encourages citizens to work toward justice, equality, and common good.

Nature of Attachment

In nationalism, attachment comes from identity, cultural pride, and past memories. It often creates a feeling of superiority and discourages people from questioning the state or dominant group.

In patriotism, attachment comes from shared values like democracy, rule of law, and public welfare. It encourages people to think clearly, question the state when needed, and stay committed to its improvement.

Response to Criticism

Nationalism often sees criticism as disloyal or harmful. It may try to suppress different opinions, label critics as anti-national, and push people to conform instead of encouraging open debate.

Patriotism accepts healthy criticism because it helps improve the country. It sees feedback as a way to strengthen institutions, like civil society groups asking for democratic reforms.

Attitude toward Others

It often includes claims of being superior, which can create fear of outsiders and lead to excluding or mistreating foreigners.

It values other nations, promotes cooperation and global unity, and respects differences among people and cultures.

Inclusivity

Nationalism can be exclusive. It often links belonging to shared ancestry, culture, religion, or language, which can make outsiders feel less accepted.

Patriotism is inclusive. It is based on citizenship and shared national values, and anyone can become a patriot by taking part in the nation’s progress.

Historic Context

It is often connected with aggressive expansion, fascism, and military dominance, as seen in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Ethnic nationalism also fueled many major conflicts in the 20th century.

It is connected to anti-colonial struggles, the growth of constitutional ideas, and democratic reforms. For example, Gandhi promoted civic nationalism during India’s freedom movement.

International Aspects

It often doubts global organizations, favors making its own decisions, and supports protecting its own interests. It may push to leave treaties or limit international commitments.

It promotes countries working together on climate change, trade, health, and peacekeeping, encouraging cooperation through international organizations like the UN, WHO, and WTO.

Economic Aspects

It focuses on protecting local industries, using tariffs and economic nationalism. It often avoids foreign investment or global partnerships if they seem risky.

It encourages economic openness when it helps people, supports welfare, social security, and ensures growth that includes everyone.

Cultural Aspects

It encourages a single dominant culture and majority identity, which can pressure people to adopt one language or culture, potentially weakening the richness of multicultural diversity.

It values the country’s cultural diversity and encourages different communities to coexist. Assimilation happens naturally and voluntarily, never through force.

Democratic Impacts

If taken to the extreme, it can clash with democratic values, encouraging authoritarian rule, spreading propaganda, and promoting government-controlled stories.

It fits well with democratic values like free speech, tolerance, and constitutional rights, and grows best in open, accountable systems.

Social Impacts

It can lead to social divides, tensions between majority and minority groups, and distrust of “outsiders.” History shows nationalism sometimes sparks ethnic violence and exclusionary politics.

It promotes social trust, respect for diversity, and a sense of shared responsibility. It also encourages civic actions like voting, volunteering, and serving the community.

Psychological Aspects

It involves favoring one’s own group, feeling superior, and being hostile toward others. It can lead to aggressive actions during politically charged identity conflicts.

It is linked to caring for others, working together, and feeling proud of one’s community. It promotes responsible actions, like paying taxes and following the law.

Relation with State Power

Nationalism often mixes love for the country with support for the government or ruling party, making it hard to separate the nation from those in power.

Patriotism focuses on love for your country. It means being loyal to the constitution and its institutions, not just the current government, and allows you to question or criticize leaders.

Impact on Migration/ Diversity

It often resists immigration, seeing it as a risk to culture or the economy. Favors strict border controls, close monitoring, and limited citizenship rules.

It sees immigrants in a positive light when they help the country grow and progress. It also supports policies that encourage integration and respect for all communities equally.

Impact on Foreign Policies

It promotes being firm, strengthening borders, and building up military power. It often supports a more aggressive or competitive approach in foreign relations.

It promotes friendly relations, peace, and principled international partnerships, emphasizing cooperation with neighboring countries and acting responsibly on the global stage.

Contemporary Relevance

Growing nationalism shapes how countries manage borders, control immigration, protect trade, and compete with other nations.

It promotes countries working together on climate, trade, and human rights, helping the world face major challenges as a team.

Risk

Blind nationalism can turn extreme, hostile to outsiders, or focused on military power, threatening a country’s diversity and global peace.

Excessive patriotism can turn into aggressive nationalism if it isn’t guided by democratic values.

Consequences

If left unchecked, it can lead to radicalisation, tensions with neighbours, loss of rights, and weakening of democratic institutions

It creates stable and peaceful societies with strong democracy. It promotes reforms, new ideas, and growth that benefits everyone.
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Difference between Nationalism and Patriotism FAQs

Q1: What is the Main Difference between Nationalism and Patriotism?

Ans: Nationalism focuses on prioritizing a nation’s interests, sometimes above others, while patriotism emphasizes love, pride, and loyalty to one’s country without hostility.

Q2: Can Patriotism exist without Nationalism?

Ans: Yes, patriotism can exist without nationalism. A citizen can feel proud of their country’s culture and values without promoting superiority over other nations.

Q3: Is Nationalism always positive?

Ans: Nationalism isn’t always positive. While it can unite people, extreme nationalism may lead to intolerance, conflict, or exclusion, unlike patriotism which is generally positive and inclusive.

Q4: How do Nationalism and Patriotism impact society?

Ans: Patriotism encourages civic responsibility and community service, while nationalism can either unify or divide society depending on whether it promotes cooperation or aggression.

Q5: Which is considered more globally accepted Nationalism or Patriotism?

Ans: Patriotism is more widely accepted globally as it promotes loyalty and pride without aggression, whereas nationalism is often criticized when it leads to conflicts or exclusion.

Biosphere Reserves in India, List, Origin, Structure, Importance

December 2, 2025
Biosphere Reserve in India

Biosphere Reserves in India are designated by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) to protect representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes. These areas may cover large terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems, or a combination of both. It protects and maintains the diversity of flora, fauna, and ecosystems and promotes economic and social development that aligns with ecological conservation.

Biosphere Reserves serve as living examples of coexistence between humans and nature, demonstrating how development and conservation can progress together while respecting each other’s needs.

Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere Reserves are established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Their main goal is to promote sustainable development through local community involvement and scientific management.

These reserves encompass terrestrial, marine, and coastal ecosystems, conserving all forms of life in situ along with their support systems. They also act as reference sites for monitoring and evaluating ecological changes over time.

Part of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) framework since 1971, Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national governments. There are over 500 reserves across more than 100 countries, highlighting their importance in preserving ecosystems while supporting human development.

Biosphere Reserves Origin

The Biosphere Reserves programme was initiated by UNESCO in 1971, with the first reserve established in 1979. Since then, the network has grown to 686 reserves across 122 countries, including 20 transboundary sites.

Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national governments and remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the countries where they are located. Despite this, their status is internationally recognized, highlighting their global importance in biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.

Biosphere Reserves Structure

Biosphere Reserves are structured into three interconnected zones, each designed to balance conservation with sustainable use. These zones work together to protect biodiversity while supporting research, education, and local livelihoods.

Biosphere Reserve Structure

Zone

Description

Purpose/Function

Core Area

Strictly protected ecosystem.

Conserves landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic variation.

Buffer Zone

Surrounds or adjoins the core area.

Supports ecological practices, scientific research, monitoring, training, and education.

Transition Area

Outermost zone with human settlements and activities.

Encourages sustainable economic and human development, blending ecological and socio-cultural needs.

Biosphere Reserves Designation Criteria

The core area should represent a typical bio-geographical unit and be large enough to sustain viable populations across all trophic levels.

  • It must include an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core zone with significant value for nature conservation.
  • The site should have potential for preserving traditional tribal or rural lifestyles that reflect harmonious use of the environment.
  • The management authority must involve and cooperate with local communities to integrate biodiversity conservation with socio-economic development.
  • Efforts should focus on managing and containing conflicts while using community knowledge and experience for sustainable outcomes.

Difference Between Biosphere Reserves and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries

To understand conservation in India better, it’s important to know Difference Between Biosphere Reserve and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries. Both aim at protecting biodiversity, but their objectives, legal backing, and approach vary.

Difference Between Biosphere Reserves and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries

National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary

Biosphere Reserves

National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, Community Reserves and Tiger Reserves are established as per provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972

There is no law as such under which these Reserves are established.

No grazing or private tenurial rights land rights are allowed in National Parks.

Biosphere reserves serve as ‘living laboratories’ for testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity. Thus, limited economic activity (sand and stone mining) is permitted

Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks are set up for the protection of mammals normally

They envisage protection of plant species, Invertebrates and biotic community as a whole

List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025

India is home to a rich natural heritage, with ecosystems, to preserve this biodiversity and promote sustainable development, the country has established 18 Biosphere Reserves. Many of these are also recognized under UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, highlighting their global importance. These reserves not only safeguard endangered species but also protect diverse ecosystems and cultural heritage. Below is the complete List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025, along with their year of establishment, states covered, and key species protected.

List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025

Year

Biosphere Reserves

State(s)

Key Species

Area (km²)

1986

Nilgiri

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala

Nilgiri Tahr, Tiger

5,520

1988

Nanda Devi

Uttarakhand

Snow Leopard, Musk Deer

5,860

1988

Nokrek

Meghalaya

Red Panda, Hoolock Gibbon

820

1989

Gulf of Mannar

Tamil Nadu

Dugong, Olive Ridley Turtle

10,500

1989

Sundarbans

West Bengal

Royal Bengal Tiger

9,630

1989

Manas

Assam

Asiatic Elephant, Golden Langur

2,837

1989

Great Nicobar

Andaman & Nicobar

Saltwater Crocodile, Nicobar Megapode

885

1994

Simlipal

Odisha

Gaur, Tiger, Elephant

4,374

1998

Dihang-Dibang

Arunachal Pradesh

Takin, Red Panda

5,112

1997

Dibru-Saikhowa

Assam

Gangetic Dolphin, Bengal Tiger

765

1999

Pachmarhi

Madhya Pradesh

Indian Giant Squirrel

4,981

2000

Khangchendzonga

Sikkim

Red Panda, Snow Leopard

2,620

2001

Agasthyamalai

Kerala, Tamil Nadu

Nilgiri Tahr, Elephant

3,500

2005

Achanakmar-Amarkantak

Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh

Wild Dog, Sarus Crane

3,835

2008

Great Rann of Kutch

Gujarat

Indian Wild Ass

12,454

2009

Cold Desert

Himachal Pradesh

Snow Leopard

7,770

2010

Seshachalam Hills

Andhra Pradesh

Slender Loris

4,755

2011

Panna

Madhya Pradesh

Bengal Tiger, Chinkara

2,998

First Biosphere Reserve in India

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, established in 1986, holds the distinction of being the First Biosphere Reserve in India. Spread across Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, it forms part of the Western Ghats, a global biodiversity hotspot. This reserve shelters a wide range of unique flora and fauna, including the endangered Nilgiri Tahr, the Lion-tailed Macaque, and the Malabar Giant Squirrel. Its diverse landscapes, from montane forests to grasslands, make it a vital ecological region, balancing conservation with the livelihood needs of local communities.

Smallest Biosphere Reserve in India

Nokrek Biosphere Reserve in Meghalaya is known as the Smallest Biosphere Reserve in India covering only 820 km². The location provides shelter to Red Panda, Hoolock Gibbon and unique citrus plant species.

Biosphere Reserve Importance

  • Conservation of Biodiversity - Protects endangered species, rare plants, animals, and ecosystems.
  • Sustainable Development - Encourages eco-tourism, organic farming, and traditional practices supporting local communities.
  • Climate Change Mitigation - Forests and wetlands act as carbon sinks, reducing global warming.
  • Research and Education - Provides opportunities for scientific research, wildlife studies, and conservation awareness.
  • Cultural Preservation - Safeguards indigenous tribes, their traditions, and sustainable lifestyles.

Biosphere Reserve Challenges

  • Human Encroachment - Expansion of agriculture, grazing, and settlements disrupts natural habitats.
  • Deforestation & Poaching - Illegal logging, hunting, and wildlife trade reduce biodiversity.
  • Climate Change - Alters rainfall, temperature, and ecosystem balance, affecting species survival.
  • Lack of Funding - Limited financial support weakens conservation and monitoring programs.
  • Tourism Pressure - Unregulated tourism leads to waste generation and habitat degradation.

Conflict with Locals - Restrictions on resource use often clash with community livelihood needs.

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Biosphere Reserves in India FAQs

Q1: What is meant by biosphere reserve?

Ans: A biosphere reserve is a protected area conserving biodiversity, supporting sustainable development, and prompting research and education for environmental protection.

Q2: How many biosphere reserves are in India?

Ans: India has 18 biosphere reserves, of which 12 are part of UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Q3: Is biosphere reserve class 8?

Ans: Yes, the concept of biosphere reserves is introduced in Class 8 NCERT Geography to explain biodiversity conservation.

Q4: What is the difference between a national park and a biosphere reserve?

Ans: A national park protects specific wildlife, while a biosphere reserve conserves biodiversity, includes human settlements, and promotes sustainable use.

Q5: Which is the largest biosphere reserve in India?

Ans: The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu is the largest in India.

Key Fact about Guinea-Bissau

December 2, 2025
Key Facts about Guinea-Bissau

Guinea-Bissau Latest News

Recently, the African country of Guinea-Bissau fell under military rule.

About Guinea-Bissau

  • It is one of the smallest countries in the African continent.
  • Bordering Countries: It borders Senegal to the north and Guina to its eastern and southern boundaries.
  • Maritime Boundary:  To the west, the country has a coastline on the Atlantic Ocean.
  • It includes the Bijagós (Bissagos) archipelago and other islands that lie off the coast.
  • Capital City: Bissau

Geographical Features of Guinea-Bissau

  • Terrain: Mostly low-lying coastal plain with a deeply indented estuarine coastline rising to savanna in the east.
  • Plateau : The Fouta Djallon Plateau dominates the southeastern part of the country.
  • Climate: It has a generally tropical climate influenced by the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ).
  • Its environment is largely made up of swamps and marshlands.
  • Rivers: Corubal, Geba, and Cacheu ETC.
  • Economy: Fishing is a huge local industry of this country.
  • Natural resources: Phosphates, bauxite, clay, granite, limestone,

Source: DD News

Guinea-Bissau FAQs

Q1: Where is Guinea-Bissau located?

Ans: West Africa

Q2: What is the capital of Guinea-Bissau?

Ans: Bissau

National Pollution Control Day 2025, Theme, Objectives, Bhopal Gas Tragedy

December 2, 2025
National Pollution Control Day 2025

National Pollution Control Day is observed every year on 2 December in India to raise awareness about the harmful effects of pollution and to strengthen actions that prevent industrial disasters. The day commemorates the victims of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy of 1984, one of the world’s deadliest industrial accidents.

National Pollution Control Day 2025 Theme

National Pollution Control Day 2025 Theme is “Sustainable Living for a Greener Future,” which emphasises how small, everyday decisions made by individuals and communities can collectively improve India’s environmental health. It highlights the need for responsible consumption, reduced waste, energy conservation, and eco-friendly habits to build a cleaner and more sustainable future for all.

National Pollution Control Day 2025 Objectives

National Pollution Control Day 2025 is observed to raise awareness about pollution and prevent industrial disasters. It aims to educate citizens, promote environmental responsibility, and strengthen safety measures across industries.

  • Commemoration: Honour the victims of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984.
  • Awareness Generation: Educate the public on air, water, soil, noise, and chemical pollution.
  • Industrial Safety: Emphasise safe handling of hazardous chemicals and disaster preparedness.
  • Pollution Control: Encourage adoption of clean technologies, waste management, and zero-discharge practices.
  • Policy Support: Support national environmental initiatives like Clean Air, Namami Gange, and climate action programs.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy, which occurred on 2-3 December 1984, is the world’s worst industrial disaster. A massive leak of Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas from the Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal led to catastrophic consequences.

  • Over 3,000 deaths within the first 72 hours.
  • Long-term deaths are estimated at 15,000-20,000.
  • Over 5,50,000 people were exposed to the toxic gas.
  • Survivors suffer from chronic diseases: respiratory disorders, vision loss, cancers, reproductive issues, and neurological damage.

Environmental Laws and Regulations in India

India has developed a strong environmental regulatory framework over the years. Key laws include:

  1. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Enacted after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, this act provides an umbrella framework for environmental protection in India. It empowers the government to set standards, regulate emissions, and take action against polluting industries.
  2. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: This act focuses on controlling and preventing air pollution across India. It authorizes the government to monitor air quality, set emission limits, and penalize violators.
  3. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: Designed to safeguard water bodies from industrial and domestic pollution, this act establishes pollution control boards. It regulates discharge into rivers, lakes, and groundwater, ensuring clean and safe water for public use.
  4. Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: This law ensures compensation for victims of accidents involving hazardous chemicals. Industries must maintain insurance coverage to provide immediate relief to affected persons.
  5. Hazardous Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules govern the proper handling, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. They aim to minimize environmental damage and promote safe industrial practices.
  6. National Green Tribunal (NGT), 2010: The NGT provides a fast-track mechanism for environmental litigation and enforcement of laws. It hears cases related to pollution, forest conservation, and environmental protection.

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), established in 1974, is a statutory body under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974. It is India’s apex authority for monitoring and controlling pollution. It sets environmental standards, monitors air and water quality, coordinates with State Pollution Control Boards, and enforces compliance to reduce pollution nationwide.

Functions:

  • Monitors air, water, and soil quality across India.
  • Advises the Central Government on pollution control policies and regulations.
  • Implements programs like the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
  • Supports industrial safety and hazardous waste management initiatives.

National Pollution Control Day 2025 FAQs

Q1: When is National Pollution Control Day observed?

Ans: National Pollution Control Day is observed every year on 2 December.

Q2: Why is the day observed on 2 December?

Ans: It marks the anniversary of the 1984 Bhopal Gas Tragedy, an industrial disaster caused by the leakage of MIC gas.

Q3: What is the theme of National Pollution Control Day 2025?

Ans: This year’s theme, “Sustainable Living for a Greener Future,” emphasizes how everyday choices impact India’s environmental health.

Q4: Which agency monitors pollution in India?

Ans: The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is the apex authority for pollution monitoring and control.

Q5: What is the main aim of National Pollution Control Day?

Ans: To spread awareness about pollution, prevent industrial disasters, and promote environmental protection.

Heron Mk II

December 2, 2025
Heron Mk II

Heron Mk II Latest News

To enhance their unmanned capabilities in the wake of Operation Sindoor, the Indian armed forces have signed up for more satellite-linked Heron Mk II UAVs under emergency procurement, sources in the Israeli defence industry said recently.

About Heron Mk II

  • It is a medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).
  • It was developed by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI).

Heron Mk II Features

  • It has a length of 8.5 m, a wingspan of 16.6 m, and a payload capacity of 490 kg.
  • It has a maximum takeoff weight of 1,430 kg. 
  • It offers an endurance of 45 hours and a top speed of 150 knots.
  • It can reach altitudes up to 35,000 ft and has an operating range of more than 1,000 km.
  • It can carry long-range radars and observation sensors, such as electro-optical/infra-red (EO/IR) systems for detection and tracking of targets.
  • The electronic intelligence (ELINT) and communications intelligence (COMINT) systems will be installed on board to detect, analyse, geolocate, and gather electronic and communication radio signals for actionable intelligence at long-range stand-off distances.
  • It is able to gather intelligence from tens of kilometers away without crossing borders.

Source: TH

Heron Mk II FAQs

Q1: What is Heron Mk II?

Ans: It is a medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).

Q2: Which organisation developed the Heron Mk II UAV?

Ans: It was developed by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI).

Q3: What is the payload capacity of the Heron Mk II?

Ans: 490 kg

Q4: What is the maximum endurance of the Heron Mk II?

Ans: 45 hours

ISRO’s LVM3 M5 Launches Bahubali, India’s Heaviest Communication Satellite

December 2, 2025
ISRO’s LVM3 M5 Launches Bahubali

The LVM3 (formerly GSLV Mk III) is the heavy-lift launch vehicle of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). With a three-stage design combining solid, liquid and cryogenic propulsion, LVM3 has established a stellar track record of seven consecutive successful missions. The LVM3 M5 flight, its fifth operational mission, aims to place the 4,410 kg multi-band communication satellite CMS‑03 into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO), marking a significant milestone in India’s space capability.

LVM3 M5 Launch

The LVM3 M5 Mission will launch from the Second Launch Pad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. Key mission highlights are given below:

  • Launch Date: November 2, 2025 at 17:26 IST 
  • Payload: CMS-03, weighing ~4,410 kg, the heaviest communication satellite to be launched to GTO from Indian soil.
  • Vehicle: LVM3 M5, the fifth operational flight of LVM3 series.
  • Launch site: SLP at SDSC-SHAR (Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota)
  • Flight sequence: ignition of strap-ons (S200), core (L110) ignition, strap-on separation, Payload Fairing (PLF) separation, L110 separation, C25 ignition, C25 shut-off, vehicle insertion and spacecraft separation.

Bahubali Rocket

The nickname “Bahubali Rocket” was affectionately given to ISRO’s LVM3 (Launch Vehicle Mark-3) by the public and media, inspired by the popular Indian film Baahubali, which symbolizes immense strength and power. The name reflects the rocket’s status as India’s most powerful and heavy-lift launcher, capable of carrying satellites weighing over 4,000 kg to geosynchronous orbit. Its successful missions, including Chandrayaan-2 and OneWeb, strengthened its image as India’s mighty “Bahubali” of space exploration

LVM3 M5 Vehicle Details

The key details of the Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LVM3) has been highlighted below:

  • Strap-On Stage: 2 × S200
    • Length: 26.22 m, Diameter: 3.2 m
    • Solid propellant (HTPB) approx. 204.5 t each.
    • Provide the massive thrust required for liftoff and early ascent.
  • Core Stage: L110
    • Length: 21.4 m, Diameter: 4.0 m
    • Liquid propellants (UH25 + N₂O₄) approx. 115.9 t.
    • Operates after strap-on burnout to continue the ascent.
  • Upper Stage: C25
    • Length: 13.5 m, Diameter: 4.0 m
    • Cryogenic propellants (LH₂ & LOX) approx. 28.6 t.
    • Final insertion stage into GTO; provides the precision required for the complex orbit.

LVM3 Rocket Features

LVM3 has established itself as India’s operational heavy-lift launch vehicle. ISRO lists its height at 43.5 m, payload fairing diameter at 5.0 m and lift-off mass around 640 t.

  • Designed capability to place ~4,000 kg into GTO and ~8,000 kg into Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
  • The LVM3-M2 mission carried 5,796 kg to LEO, showing the vehicle’s growing performance margin.
  • ISRO is working on a semi-cryogenic engine upgrade (SE-2000) to raise GTO payload from ~4 to ~5 tonnes and LEO to ~10 tonnes.
  • The vehicle stands 43.5 m tall and has a lift-off mass of 642 t.
  • The configurable stack is (2 × S200 strap-ons + L110 core + C25 cryogenic upper stage + 5 m Payload Fairing) and is designated “2S200+L110(HTVE)+C25+5 m OPLF”.
  • The mission’s target orbit is a GTO of apogee ~29,970 ± 3,700 km, perigee 170 ± 3.5 km, inclination 21.4° ± 0.1°, and argument of perigee 178° ± 0.3°, launch azimuth 107°.
  • Thus, LVM3 M5 is built on a solid foundation and positions India towards self-reliance in heavy-payload launches.

CMS-03 Satellite

CMS-03 (also referred to as GSAT-7R) is a multi-band communication satellite designed to serve a wide oceanic region including the Indian landmass. Weighing 4,410 kg, it is the heaviest communications satellite to be launched from Indian soil into GTO. The mission underscores ISRO’s capability to launch large communication satellites indigenously and reduces dependency on foreign launch services.

LVM3 M5 Launch Sequence

The mission LVM3 M5 Launch from the Second Launch Pad at SDSC-SHAR, Sriharikota. The flight sequence comprises:

  • Ignition of the two S200 strap-ons → lift-off
  • Core stage L110 ignition at ~106.94 s (altitude ~41 km)
  • Strap-on separation at ~131.14 s, PLF separation at ~198.86 s
  • L110 separation at ~304.70 s and C25 ignition at ~307.10 s
  • C25 shut-off at ~950.94 s and CMS-03 spacecraft separation at 965.94 s with altitude ~179.8 km and inertial velocity ~10.15 km/s

Naval Communication through the CMS-03 Satellite

The CMS-03 satellite, launched aboard LVM3 M5, plays a vital role in strengthening naval communication and maritime surveillance across India’s vast oceanic region. It provides secure, high-bandwidth links essential for the Indian Navy’s real-time communication, navigation, and data-sharing between ships, submarines, and coastal command centers. Covering the Indian Ocean and nearby maritime zones, CMS-03 enhances defense readiness, situational awareness, and operational coordination, supporting India’s goal of achieving reliable and indigenous space-based communication infrastructure for maritime security.

LVM3-M5 Launch Significance

The LVM3 M5 Launch has multiple strategic implications:

  • Marks India’s ability to launch over 4 tonnes into GTO from Indian soil, a capability formerly outsourced.
  • Paves the way for future human-rated missions (Gaganyaan) and large space station modules.
  • Enhances India’s commercial launch offering and global competitiveness.
  • Reinforces national security and communication infrastructure via CMS-03.

LVM3-M5 Launch Impact

With LVM3’s maturity, ISRO and its commercial arm (NewSpace India Limited- NSIL) can offer heavy-lift services. The LVM3-M2 mission for OneWeb (36 satellites, ~5.8 t) marked a commercial debut. By launching CMS-03 entirely on-house, India saves costs, retains payload autonomy, and strengthens its global position as a launch provider. This bodes well for future export of launch services.

LVM3 M5 Mission Challenges

Despite success, some challenges remain:

  • LVM3’s nominal payload to GTO is ~4 t; to compete globally, ISRO seeks to raise it to ~5 t via semi-cryogenic engine.
  • Increased mission rate, cost-efficiency and market competition require further innovation.
  • Human-rated version HLVM3 (derived from LVM3) suggests further reliability and safety focus. 
  • Way forward: accelerated engine development, modularisation, increased production capability and strong commercial strategy.

LVM3 M5 Launch Future Aspects

Looking ahead, the LVM3-M5 mission sets the precedent for:

  • Gaganyaan crewed mission (using human-rated version).
  • Large modules for India’s planned space station (BAS).
  • Enhanced commercial launches of heavy payloads into GTO and LEO.
  • Strengthened global market share for launch services. The technology upgrades underway (semi-cryogenic, higher thrust cryo, modular launchers) position ISRO well for the next decade.

LVM3 M5 Mission Marks Atmanirbhar Bharat Space

Earlier, India had to rely on foreign launch providers for heavy satellites over ~4 t to GTO, such as GSAT-11 (5,854 kg) and GSAT-20 (4,700 kg). With LVM3 M5 Launch undertaking the CMS-03 mission entirely with Indian hardware and infrastructure, it marks a shift towards self-reliance in heavy-lift capabilities. This boosts India’s autonomy in space access and strengthens its position in the global launch services market.

LVM3 M5 Launch Prime Minister on ‘X’

The Indian Space Research Organisation’s LVM3 M5 Launch with the CMS‑03 satellite sparked widespread celebration on social platforms. Prime Minister Narendra Modi tweeted on the Social Platform - ‘X’ (formerly Twitter) his congratulations to ISRO, calling the mission a symbol of India’s scientific excellence and innovation. Hashtags like #Bahubali, #LVM3M5, #AtmanirbharBharatSpace, and #IndiaInSpace trended across X, Instagram and Facebook, capturing global attention.

[my_image src="https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/Screenshot-2025-11-03-124708.png" size="full" align="none" alt="LVM3 M5 Launch Prime Minister on ‘X’" title="LVM3 M5 Launch Prime Minister on ‘X’" width="auto" height="auto"]

LVM3 M5 Launch UPSC

The LVM3 M5 Launch is a landmark for India’s space ambitions, a culmination of years of engineering, testing and vision. With its heavy payload, GTO success and operational readiness, LVM3 empowers India’s pursuit of space self-reliance, commercial viability and strategic capability. As the “Bahubali” of Indian rockets, LVM3 is ready to carry the nation to its next frontier.

Following the LVM3 M5 Mission, the Indian Space Research Organisation announced that the C25 cryogenic stage performed an in-orbit test burn post-separation, demonstrating enhanced performance and readiness for future missions. This represents a key technological upgrade for the launch vehicle family and lays the groundwork for future human-rated (Gaganyaan) and heavy-module launches.

LVM3 M5 Launch FAQs

Q1: What is the LVM3-M5 Launch vehicle?

Ans: It’s the fifth operational flight of India’s heavy-lift launch vehicle (LVM3) aiming to place CMS-03 into GTO.

Q2: Why is the CMS-03 Satellite significant?

Ans: At 4,410 kg, it is the heaviest communication satellite launched from Indian soil into GTO and strengthens India’s oceanic region connectivity.

Q3: What is the payload capacity of LVM3?

Ans: The vehicle is capable of ~4 000 kg to GTO and ~8 000 kg to LEO; upgrades aim to raise it.

Q4: Where is the LVM3-M5 Mission launching from?

Ans: The Second Launch Pad at SDSC-SHAR, Sriharikota, India.

Q5: What future missions will use LVM3?

Ans: Human-rated conversion (HLVM3) for Gaganyaan, space station modules, large commercial payloads and deep-space exploration.

Bioremediation

December 2, 2025
Bioremediation

Bioremediation Latest News

Bioremediation offers a cheaper, scalable, and sustainable alternative, especially in a country like India where vast stretches of land and water are affected but resources for remediation are limited.

About Bioremediation

  • Bioremediation literally means “restoring life through biology.” 
  • It is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade environmental contaminants into less toxic forms.
  • It is used to clean up contaminated soil, air, and water.
  • It harnesses microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants to sequester or transform toxic substances such as oil, pesticides, plastics, or heavy metals. 
  • These organisms metabolise these pollutants as food, breaking them down into harmless by-products such as water, carbon dioxide, or organic acids. 
  • In some cases, they can convert toxic metals into less dangerous forms that no longer leach into the soil or groundwater.
  • Two Broad Types of Bioremediation:
    • In situ bioremediation, where treatment happens directly at the contaminated site, such as when oil-eating bacteria is sprayed on an ocean spill; 
    • Ex situ bioremediation, where contaminated soil or water is removed, treated in a controlled facility, and returned once cleaned.
  • For bioremediation to be effective, the right temperature, nutrients, and food also must be present. 
  • Proper conditions allow the right microbes to grow and multiply—and eat more contaminants.

Bioremediation Advantages

  • It cleans up the environment naturally without the use of toxic chemicals. So, it is an environmentally friendly method. 
  • Contaminants are converted into water and harmless gases.
  • It is cost-effective, as extensive equipment and labor are not needed.
  • It is a permanent solution, as the degraded material cannot revert back to the previous one.
  • It is a recommended method for removing oil stains.

Bioremediation Disadvantages

  • It takes a large area and time from months to years.
  • It is limited to the compounds which are degradable.
  • It is not able to remove all kinds of impurities from the contaminated site. Like, some kind of inorganic contaminants cannot be treated with this bioremediation method.
  • Some heavy metals cannot be completely broken down, resulting in toxic by-products.

Source: TH

Bioremediation FAQs

Q1: What does bioremediation use to degrade environmental contaminants?

Ans: Bioremediation use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade environmental contaminants into less toxic forms.

Q2: Which organisms are commonly harnessed in bioremediation processes?

Ans: It harnesses microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants to sequester or transform toxic substances.

Q3: What is in situ bioremediation?

Ans: In situ bioremediation is a method where contaminants are treated directly at the site without removing the polluted soil or water.

Q4: Why is bioremediation considered an environmentally friendly method?

Ans: It cleans up the environment naturally without the use of toxic chemicals.

Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

December 2, 2025
Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

Biological Weapons Convention Latest News

The External Affairs Minister recently called for urgent reforms to strengthen global biosecurity and modernise the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), warning that biological threats are becoming harder to manage in a rapidly evolving scientific landscape.

About Biological Weapons Convention 

  • It is a legally binding international treaty that bans the use of biological and toxin weapons and prohibits all development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, or transfer of such weapons. 
  • The treaty also bans any equipment or means of delivery that is designed to use biological agents or toxins for hostile purposes or armed conflict.
  • It requires signatories to destroy biological weapons, agents, and production facilities within nine months of the treaty’s entry into force.
  • It opened for signature on 10 April 1972 and entered into force on 26 March 1975. 
  • It was the first multilateral treaty categorically banning a class of weapon. 
  • Membership: 
    • It currently has 187 states-parties, including Palestine, and four signatories (Egypt, Haiti, Somalia, and Syria). 
    • Ten states have neither signed nor ratified the BWC (Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Israel, Kiribati, Micronesia, Namibia, South Sudan, and Tuvalu).
    • India signed and ratified the BWC in 1974.
  • The convention stipulates that states shall cooperate bilaterally or multilaterally to solve compliance issues. 
  • States may also submit complaints to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) should they believe another state is violating the treaty. 
  • However, there is no implementation body of the BWC, allowing for blatant violations. 
  • There is a review conference every five years to review the convention’s implementation, and establish confidence-building measures.

What Are Biological Weapons?

  • Biological weapons disseminate disease-causing organisms or toxins to harm or kill humans, animals, or plants.
  • They generally consist of two parts – a weaponized agent and a delivery mechanism. 
  • Almost any disease-causing organism (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, prions, or rickettsiae) or toxin (poisons derived from animals, plants, or microorganisms, or similar substances produced synthetically) can be used in biological weapons.

Source: DDN

Biological Weapons Convention FAQs

Q1: In which year did the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) enter into force?

Ans: 1975

Q2: How many states are currently parties to the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)?

Ans: It currently has 187 states-parties, including Palestine, and four signatories (Egypt, Haiti, Somalia, and Syria).

Q3: Has India ratified the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)?

Ans: India signed and ratified the BWC in 1974.

Masala Bonds

December 2, 2025
Masala Bonds

Masala Bonds Latest News

The Enforcement Directorate’s (ED) recent decision to issue notices to the Kerala Chief Minister in the KIIFB masala bond investigation marks a significant escalation in a long-running conflict between the LDF government and central agencies over the state’s financing model.

About Masala Bonds

  • They are rupee-denominated bonds issued outside India by Indian entities. 
  • The International Finance Corporation (IFC), an arm of the World Bank, issued the first masala bonds in October 2013 as part of its $2 billion dollar offshore rupee programme.
  • They are debt instruments which help to raise money in local currency from foreign investors. 
  • That means the currency risk—if exchange rates change—is on the investor, not the issuer. This helps Indian companies manage their risks better.
  • To offset the risk of exchange rate fluctuations, bonds typically offer attractive interest rates that are frequently greater than those offered in the investors’ home countries.
  • Both the government and private entities can issue these bonds. 
  • Who Can Invest?
    • Investors outside India who would like to invest in assets in India can subscribe to these bonds. 
    • Any resident of that country can subscribe to these bonds which are members of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF). 
    • That includes individuals, institutions, and even financial organisations from countries that follow international standards for fair and secure investing, like those under IOSCO (International Organisation of Securities Commissions). 
    • It also covers multilateral and regional financial institutions of which India is a member.
  • Maturity Period:
    • It depends on the size of the bond. 
    • For bonds up to USD 50 million, the maturity is usually 3 years. 
    • For larger amounts, it can go up to 5 years, giving investors more flexibility based on their goals.
  • What Can The Money Be Used For?
    • The funds raised through Masala bonds are generally earmarked for productive and regulated purposes.
    • The proceeds can fund affordable housing, infrastructure, refinance rupee loans, or meet corporate working capital requirements.
    • Activities like buying land, investing in the stock market, or funding real estate projects are off-limits—unless they’ve received specific government approvals.

Source: OI

Masala Bonds FAQs

Q1: What do you mean by Masala bond?

Ans: Masala bonds are rupee-denominated bonds issued outside India by Indian entities.

Q2: Who issued the first Masala bond in India?

Ans: The International Finance Corporation (IFC), an arm of the World Bank, issued the first masala bonds in October 2013.

Q3: Masala Bonds are issued in which currency?

Ans: Indian Rupee

Q4: Who bears the exchange-rate (currency) risk in Masala Bonds?

Ans: Foreign investor

Daily Editorial Analysis 2 December 2025

December 2, 2025
Daily Editorial Analysis

The New Action Plan on AMR Needs a Shot in the Arm

Context

  • India’s National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR 2.0) for 2025–29 arrives at a moment when AMR affects human health, veterinary practices, aquaculture, agriculture, waste systems and food chains.
  • NAP-AMR 2.0 offers a strong scientific and strategic foundation, but its success hinges on robust Centre–State coordination.
  • Antibiotic residues, resistant organisms and environmental discharge circulate across soil, water, livestock and markets, making AMR a quintessential One Health challenge that demands coordinated governance across sectors.

Evolution and Achievements of the First Plan

  • The 2017 National Action Plan marked a major step in recognising AMR as a national priority.
  • It advanced multi-sectoral engagement, expanded surveillance networks, improved laboratories and promoted stewardship.
  • Importantly, it embedded AMR within a One Health framework that linked human, animal and environmental health.
  • However, implementation remained uneven. Only a few States, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Sikkim and Punjab, developed formal State Action Plans, and even fewer advanced towards full implementation.
  • Most States continued to rely on fragmented, sector-specific actions.
  • The limited progress stemmed from the fact that health services, pharmacy regulation, veterinary oversight, agricultural practices, food-chain safety and waste governance fall largely under State jurisdiction.

NAP-AMR 2.0: Advances and Strengthened Vision

  • NAP-AMR 2.0 provides a more implementation-oriented and operationally specific framework. It outlines clearer timelines, resource planning and responsibilities.
  • A critical improvement is the explicit recognition that the private sector delivers a major share of human and veterinary health services, and its involvement is essential for national AMR control.
  • The plan deepens its One Health approach by strengthening attention to food systems, environmental contamination and waste management, which are major pathways for resistant organisms.
  • It proposes integrated surveillance systems across human, animal, agricultural and environmental sectors, promoting more harmonised monitoring.
  • In governance, NAP-AMR 2.0 elevates national oversight by placing intersectoral coordination under NITI Aayog through a dedicated Coordination and Monitoring Committee.
  • It emphasises that every State and Union Territory should establish State AMR Cells and prepare State Action Plans aligned with the national framework, supported by a national dashboard for tracking progress.
  • These shifts indicate a growing understanding of AMR as a multi-departmental development challenge, not just a technical health issue.

Persistent Gaps: The Missing Centre–State Mechanism

  • Despite major improvements, a core structural limitation remains.
  • The plan urges States to create AMR Cells and Action Plans but does not establish a mechanism to ensure compliance.
  • There is no formal Centre–State review platform, no statutory requirement for States to notify plans, no joint monitoring process, and no financial incentives linked to implementation, such as under the National Health Mission.
  • Because most AMR determinants lie under State authority, this absence of accountability structures is a critical weakness.
  • Without mechanisms for political engagement and administrative follow-through, even a well-designed plan risks achieving limited impact.

The Path Forward: The Need for a Unified and Accountable Structure

  • Effective implementation requires a clear Centre–State architecture.
  • A national–State AMR council, chaired by the union Health minister and guided by NITI Aayog, could serve as the apex decision-making and review body connecting human health, veterinary systems, agriculture, aquaculture, food safety and environmental governance.
  • State participation would strengthen if the Union Government formally requested all States to prepare and notify State AMR Action Plans with defined timelines and annual reviews.
  • High-level communication through Chief Secretaries can elevate AMR on administrative agendas.
  • Additionally, conditional financial support under the NHM, even modest, can enhance surveillance, stewardship, infection control and laboratory strengthening.

Conclusion

  • AMR spreads through hospitals, farms, markets, food systems and waste streams; therefore, national plans cannot succeed without strong State participation.
  • India now has an opportunity to build a coordinated, accountable model for AMR control that could serve as an international example.
  • With political commitment, integrated governance and sustained support, NAP-AMR 2.0 can become a transformative milestone rather than a statement of intent.

The New Action Plan on AMR Needs a Shot in the Arm FAQs

Q1. Why is AMR considered a One Health challenge in India?
Ans. AMR is a One Health challenge because resistant organisms and antibiotic residues spread through humans, animals, food systems and the environment. 

Q2. What was a key limitation of the first National Action Plan on AMR?
Ans. A key limitation was that most States did not develop or implement comprehensive State Action Plans.

Q3. How does NAP-AMR 2.0 improve on the earlier plan?
Ans. NAP-AMR 2.0 improves on the earlier plan by providing clearer timelines, integrated surveillance and stronger multisectoral coordination.

Q4. What major governance gap remains in NAP-AMR 2.0?
Ans. The major governance gap is the absence of a formal Centre–State accountability mechanism to ensure State-level implementation.

Q5. What step could strengthen State participation in AMR control?
Ans. State participation could strengthen if the Union Government mandates State Action Plans and links progress to financial incentives.

 Source: The Hindu

The Need for ‘Heart-Resilient’ Urban Planning

Context

  • On October 8, 2025, India’s Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) observed World Habitat Day under the theme Urban Solutions to Crisis.
  • Even as national missions such as the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U) and the Smart Cities Mission advance, a quieter emergency is unfolding: a surge in cardiovascular disease and diabetes across urban India.
  • Cardiovascular ailments now account for major urban deaths, with prevalence nearly twice that of rural regions and increasing cases among individuals under 50.

The Urban Living Paradox: Opportunity and Ill-Health

  • Urban life promises mobility and opportunity, yet long commutes, polluted air, shrinking green cover and rising stress shape unhealthy routines.
  • Access to care remains uneven because hospital distribution follows profit rather than need, with high-income neighbourhoods attracting most facilities while vast areas remain underserved.
  • This creates an urban paradox, prosperity for some, heightened lifestyle disease risks for many.

Fragmented Urban Planning and Its Health Consequences

  • India’s rapid urbanisation has been accompanied by fragmented planning. Transport networks, housing developments, and environmental systems often evolve in isolation.
  • Such disjointed growth locks in sedentary lifestyles, increases emissions, and reduces access to natural spaces.
  • Expressways deepen car dependence; concentrated fast-food zones shape unhealthy diets; and gridlocked roads intensify exposure to PM2.5, a major trigger for heart attacks and strokes.
  • Without health-oriented design, cities unintentionally create environments that endanger cardiovascular health.

Towards Health-Centred Urban Design

  • Integrated planning offers a path toward healthier cities.
  • The experience of global Healthy Cities initiatives shows that embedding health into urban governance reduces chronic disease risks.
  • Coordinating land use, mobility, environment and public health can reshape Indian cities into more resilient and human-centred spaces.
  • Five pillars underpin heart-healthy urban planning:
    • Walkability and Active Mobility: Shaded sidewalks, cycling lanes and safe pedestrian crossings encourage routine physical activity, lowering hypertension and diabetes risk.
    • Green Infrastructure: Tree cover, urban forests and parks cool neighbourhoods, filter air and reduce heat stress, cutting pollution-linked cardiovascular events.
    • Mixed Land Use: Combining residential, commercial and recreational spaces reduces commute times and promotes active living, making neighbourhoods more liveable.
    • Robust Public Transport: Affordable, clean-energy systems cut emissions, shorten sedentary travel and improve access for low-income groups.
    • Healthy Food Ecosystems: Local markets, community gardens and limits on junk-food advertising improve dietary choices and support heart-friendly habits.
  • Together, these interventions create compact, green and transit-friendly urban environments that support healthy lifestyles and reduce pollution.

Invisible Threats and Technological Remedies

  • Many urban risks remain unseen but deadly. PM2.5 from vehicles and industry, heat trapped by concrete-heavy layouts, and inadequate water and waste systems significantly worsen cardiovascular health.
  • Without intervention, Asia could face a 91% rise in cardiovascular mortality by 2050.
  • Holistic planning can mitigate these threats. Expanding green cover improves ventilation; renewable energy lowers emissions; and modern water and waste systems reduce toxic exposure.
  • Digital tools, AI-enabled sensors, heat-mapping platforms and citizen-reporting apps, make invisible risks visible, enabling targeted urban action and strengthening public preparedness.

Equity: The Foundation of a Healthy City

  • Cardiovascular disease disproportionately affects low-income communities, which endure the worst air quality, the least greenery, the poorest connectivity and the scarcest health services.
  • The disease burden among marginalised groups has risen sharply, underscoring structural inequities.
  • To create healthier cities, equity must anchor all planning decisions.
  • Prioritising vulnerable neighbourhoods, conducting equity audits and ensuring community involvement can prevent green gentrification, where improvements displace those they aim to benefit.
  • Such participation strengthens trust, embeds prevention in daily life and supports national health initiatives.

Conclusion

  • Cardiovascular disease reflects not only individual choices but the design of cities themselves.
  • The air people breathe, the routes they travel and the spaces they inhabit shape health outcomes profoundly.
  • As India seeks urban solutions to its crises, the most enduring one lies in building cities that protect and strengthen the human heart.

The Need for ‘Heart-Resilient’ Urban Planning FAQs

 Q1. Why are cardiovascular diseases rising rapidly in urban India?

Ans. Cardiovascular diseases are rising rapidly in urban India because pollution, long commutes, sedentary lifestyles and stress combine to create high health risks.

Q2. How does fragmented urban planning worsen health outcomes?
Ans. Fragmented planning worsens health outcomes because disconnected systems in transport, housing and environment reinforce sedentary habits, increase emissions and limit access to green spaces.

Q3. What role does green infrastructure play in heart-healthy cities?
Ans. Green infrastructure plays a crucial role because trees, parks and urban forests cool neighbourhoods, filter polluted air and reduce heat stress.

Q4. Why is equity essential for healthy urban environments?
Ans. Equity is essential because low-income communities face the worst pollution, the least greenery and poor access to health care, making them more vulnerable to cardiovascular disease.

Q5. How can digital tools support healthier urban planning?
Ans. Digital tools support healthier urban planning by mapping pollution and heat, enabling early detection of risks and guiding targeted interventions.

Source: The Hindu

Shrinking Fiscal Space of States - Trends in Tax Devolution and Finance Commission Transfers

Context

  • The debate on states’ fiscal autonomy has intensified in recent years, particularly in the backdrop of changes introduced by the 14th, 15th, and 16th Finance Commissions (FCs).
  • States argue that their fiscal space is shrinking, especially due to rising non-sharable cesses and surcharges, evolving devolution formulas, and post-GST structural issues.
  • Fiscal space consists of states’ own revenue receipts and the total transfers that they receive from the Centre, including the FC transfers.

Understanding Fiscal Transfers - Components and Trends

  • Structure of transfers

    • Transfers from the Centre to the states consist of tax devolution (largest share) and FC and non-FC grants.
    • Tax devolution and FC grants (tied, untied, sector-specific grants) are determined by the FC whereas non-FC grants are at the discretion of the central government.
    • States’ own revenue receipts (SORR) consists of both tax and non-tax revenues.

  • Combined revenue receipts

    • Measured as the sum of Centre and states’ revenue receipts, used to assess relative fiscal space.

Major Changes Across Finance Commissions (14th FC - A Landmark Shift):

  • States’ share in the divisible pool increased from 32% (13th FC) to 42%.
  • States’ share in combined revenue receipts rose from average of 15% (13th FC) to 19.2%, that is an increase of 4.25 percentage points.
  • The share of states after transfers (fiscal space) increased from 63.85 to 68.08% of combined revenue receipts. Thus, the relative shares of Centre and states were reversed.

15th Finance Commission - A Mild Contraction

  • Fall in States’ fiscal space

    • States’ share of aggregate revenue receipts fell from 68.08% (14th FC) to 67.39% - a drop of 0.70 percentage points.

  • Reasons for decline

    • Reduction in tax devolution share - fell by 1.05 percentage points to 18.2%.
    • Rise in cesses and surcharges - these are non-sharable, reducing states’ share in the divisible pool.
    • Decline in states’ own revenue receipts - fell by 0.47 percentage points.
    • It may be noted that for the 15th FC period, the number of states had been reduced to 28 (post J&K bifurcation).
    • Offsetting increase in FC and non-FC grants - net fall in transfers is only 0.23 percentage points.

Sharper Impact on High-Income States

  • States considered

    • Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.

  • Trends

    • From 13th to 14th FC, there is no net change in fiscal space, but higher transfers offset by lower SORR.
    • From 14th to 15th FC, fall in the fiscal space of high-income states, amounting to 0.38 percentage points of combined revenue receipts (decline in SORR - 0.25 percentage points, decline in transfers - 0.13 percentage points).

  • Causes of decline

    • Higher cesses and surcharges, reducing sharable pool.
    • Horizontal devolution formula potentially less favorable.
    • Post-GST issues like GST 2.0 reforms (rate reductions) and the discontinuation of the GST compensation cess.

Key Challenges

  • Rising non-sharable cesses and surcharges: Dilutes the divisible pool, and reduces predictability of transfers.
  • Declining States’ own revenue: As they depend on the Centre increases, and GST structural issues affect buoyancy.
  • Horizontal devolution concerns: High-income states claim that the FC transfer formula penalizes efficiency. For example, distance criterion in the horizontal distribution may disadvantage developed states.
  • Greater expenditure responsibilities: Fiscal stress post-COVID on social sector, infrastructure, climate adaptation.
  • GST compensation cess withdrawal: Affects fiscal capacity of manufacturing-heavy and consumption-heavy states.

Way Forward

  • Reforming the transfer architecture: Ensure equitable yet efficiency-enhancing distribution. Hopefully, the 16th FC has taken into account these concerns and modified the weight attached to the distance criterion in the horizontal distribution.
  • Limiting non-sharable levies: The Centre should curb excessive use of cesses and surcharges, and move towards greater transparency and predictability.
  • Strengthening revenue buoyancy: Improve GST compliance and widen base. Enhance states’ own tax capacity (property tax, excise reforms).
  • Cooperative federalism: Institutionalise Centre-state dialogue on fiscal reforms. Strengthen GST Council mechanisms for compensation alternatives.
  • Rationalising expenditure: Outcome-based budgeting, better targeting of subsidies.

Conclusion

  • Factors such as rising cesses and surcharges, changes in devolution formulas, and GST-related challenges have constrained states’ autonomy.
  • As the 16th Finance Commission submits its recommendations, ensuring a balanced, predictable, and equitable system of fiscal transfers is essential for strengthening fiscal federalism.
  • This will improve development outcomes, and enable both the Union and states to meet mounting socio-economic challenges.

Shrinking Fiscal Space of States FAQs

Q1. How did the 14th Finance Commission impact the fiscal space of states?

Ans. It significantly expanded states’ fiscal space by raising their share in the divisible pool from 32% to 42%.

Q2. What explains the slight decline in states’ fiscal space during the 15th FC period?

Ans. The decline was due to reduced tax devolution, increased non-sharable cesses and surcharges, and a drop in states’ own revenue receipts.

Q3. Why do high-income states claim their fiscal space has shrunk in recent years?

Ans. High-income states experienced reduced transfers and declining own revenues, partly due to an unfavourable devolution formula.

Q4. How have GST-related developments affected state finances post-GST 2.0 reforms?

Ans. Post-GST 2.0 rate reductions and the discontinuation of the GST compensation cess have reduced GST revenue buoyancy for states.

Q5. What measures can strengthen fiscal federalism in India in light of recent trends?

Ans. By limiting cesses/surcharges, improving tax buoyancy, revisiting the devolution formula, and ensuring predictable, equitable transfers via the 16th FC.

Source: IE

Daily Editorial Analysis 2 December 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Bioremediation in India – Explained

December 2, 2025
Bioremediation

Bioremediation Latest News

  • India is witnessing an urgent environmental crisis triggered by decades of unchecked waste generation, industrial pollution, pesticide accumulation, oil spills, and heavy-metal contamination.  

Understanding Bioremediation

  • Bioremediation literally means “restoring life through biology.” It relies on naturally occurring or engineered microorganisms, bacteria, fungi, algae, or plants to break down dangerous pollutants into harmless by-products. 
  • These pollutants range from oil and pesticides to plastics and toxic heavy metals.
  • Microbes metabolise pollutants as food, converting them into water, carbon dioxide, or organic acids, while certain organisms transform metals into safer, non-leaching forms. 

Types of Bioremediation Techniques

  • In Situ Bioremediation
    • Treatment occurs directly at the contaminated site.
    • Examples include oil-eating bacteria deployed over ocean spills.
  • Ex Situ Bioremediation
    • Contaminated soil or water is removed, treated in a facility, and then returned.
    • This approach allows controlled treatment for complex pollutant mixtures.
  • Modern bioremediation blends traditional microbiology with advanced biotechnology, enabling precise identification of biomolecules and replication of microbes tailored for specific environments like sewage systems or agricultural fields.
  • Synthetic biology has introduced:
    • GM microbes for tough pollutants such as plastics and oil residues,
    • Biosensing organisms that change colour or fluoresce when detecting toxins, aiding early warnings and monitoring. 

Urgent Need for Bioremediation in India

  • India’s rapid industrialisation and urbanisation have come with steep environmental costs. 
  • Heavily polluted rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna, untreated sewage, toxic effluents, oil leaks, pesticide residues, and heavy metals have created widespread ecological degradation.
  • Traditional clean-up systems, thermal treatments, chemical neutralisation, and mechanical extraction are expensive, energy-intensive, and often produce secondary pollution.
  • Bioremediation stands out as a cost-effective, scalable, and environmentally sustainable alternative, especially critical for a country dealing with:
    • Large polluted land areas,
    • Limited resources for remediation,
    • Dense urban centres are overwhelmed by waste. 
  • India’s natural biodiversity gives it an additional advantage. Indigenous microbes adapted to extreme environments (heat, salinity, acidity) can outperform imported strains in cleaning local contamination.

India’s Current Progress in Bioremediation

  • India’s bioremediation ecosystem is growing but remains mostly at the pilot-project stage. Key developments include:
  • Government-Led Initiatives
    • The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) supports bioremediation projects through its Clean Technology Programme, encouraging partnerships between universities, research institutes, and industries.
    • The CSIR–NEERI has a mandate to develop and implement bioremediation programmes nationwide. 
  • Research Innovations
    • IIT researchers created a nanocomposite material from cotton to clean oil spills.
    • Scientists have identified bacteria capable of degrading soil pollutants.
  • Start-up Participation
    • Companies now offer microbial formulations for cleaning wastewater and soil, indicating growing commercial adoption. 

Global Trends in Bioremediation

  • Japan uses plant- and microbe-based systems in urban waste strategies.
  • The European Union funds multinational collaborations for oil spill clean-up and mining land restoration.
  • China applies engineered bacteria to restore industrial wastelands under its soil pollution control programme. 
  • These global examples underline how bioremediation can be mainstreamed in national environmental management.

Opportunities for India

  • India has immense opportunities to integrate bioremediation into:
    • River rejuvenation (e.g., Namami Gange), Sewage treatment infrastructure, Land reclamation, Industrial clean-up missions.
  • Beyond environmental benefits, bioremediation can create jobs in:
    • Biotechnology research, Waste management, Environmental consulting, Local start-up ecosystems.

Risks and Regulatory Challenges

  • Bioremediation also carries risks, especially when using genetically modified organisms (GMOs). 
  • Poor containment or inadequate testing can harm ecosystems. India currently faces:
    • A lack of unified national standards for bioremediation, Insufficient site-specific data, Weak biosafety guidelines, and Limited trained personnel. 

Way Forward

  • Creating national bioremediation standards and certification systems,
  • Building regional bioremediation hubs linking universities, industries, and local governments,
  • Supporting start-ups under the DBT-BIRAC ecosystem,
  • Engaging communities to dispel myths and build acceptance of microbial clean-up technologies. 

Source: TH

Bioremediation FAQs

Q1: What is bioremediation?

Ans: It is the use of microbes, algae, or plants to break down or neutralise toxic pollutants.

Q2: Why is bioremediation important for India?

Ans: It offers a low-cost, sustainable solution to widespread pollution in land and water bodies.

Q3: Which organisations are leading bioremediation research in India?

Ans: DBT, CSIR–NEERI, and institutions like IITs.

Q4: What are the major types of bioremediation?

Ans: In situ (on-site) and ex situ (off-site) remediation methods.

Q5: What risks does bioremediation pose?

Ans: GM microbes can cause ecological harm if not rigorously tested and regulated.

India’s REPM Scheme: ₹7,280-Crore Push to Reduce China Dependence in Rare Earth Magnets

December 2, 2025
REPM Scheme

REPM Scheme Latest News

  • To counter China’s overwhelming dominance in rare earth magnet manufacturing, the Indian government has approved a ₹7,280-crore scheme to promote domestic production of rare earth permanent magnets (REPMs).
  • REPMs are critical components for EVs, renewable energy systems, electronics, aerospace, and defence. China currently controls over 90% of global REPM manufacturing and processing.
  • This gives it significant geopolitical leverage, which it has used during trade disputes.

Why India Needs Urgent Diversification

  • India plans large-scale expansion in renewable energy and electric mobility, sharply increasing domestic demand for REPMs.
  • The government estimates that India’s magnet consumption will double by 2030.
  • However, India imports almost all of its REPM needs, making the country highly vulnerable to external shocks and supply disruptions.
  • Also, in April 2025, China imposed export controls on magnets in response to US tariff measures, intensifying global supply concerns.
  • The newly approved scheme aims to develop domestic capabilities and reduce over-reliance on China.
  • While modest compared to China’s scale, the initiative marks a crucial strategic shift as global stakes rise due to prolonged restrictions and supply chain uncertainty.

Government’s REPM Scheme: What It Aims to Achieve

  • The scheme marks the beginning of a long, challenging journey for India.
  • The scheme targets creation of 6,000 MTPA of integrated rare earth permanent magnet (REPM) manufacturing capacity. 
  • This capacity will be divided among five beneficiaries, each eligible for up to 1,200 MTPA through a competitive bidding process.

Incentives and Financial Support

  • Selected companies will receive:
    • ₹6,450 crore in sales-linked incentives over five years
    • ₹750 crore as capital subsidy for setting up integrated facilities
  • The financial support is designed to encourage large-scale, commercially viable manufacturing.

Focus on High-Demand NdFeB Magnets

  • The scheme prioritises sintered rare-earth permanent magnets, specifically neodymium–iron–boron (NdFeB) magnets, which are the strongest and most widely used.
  • These magnets rely on:
    • Light rare-earths: Neodymium (Nd), Praseodymium (Pr)
    • Heavy rare-earths: Dysprosium (Dy), Terbium (Tb) for better high-temperature performance

What Integrated REPM Manufacturing Involves

  • The REPM production chain includes:
    • Mining
    • Beneficiation
    • Processing
    • Extraction
    • Refining to rare earth oxides
    • Conversion of oxides to metal
    • Metal to alloy
    • Alloy to magnet
  • The scheme will support facilities capable of performing the final three stages:
    • Rare earth oxide → metal
    • Metal → alloy
    • Alloy → rare earth permanent magnet

India’s Heavy Dependence on China

  • India imported over 53,000 tonnes of rare earth magnets in 2024–25, with more than 90% coming from China.
  • The new scheme aims to reduce this reliance and build domestic capacity, but major challenges remain.

Where India Stands in the Global REPM Landscape

  • Outside China, only countries like Japan and Vietnam produce REPMs, and their global share is limited.
  • India currently has no commercial-scale manufacturing, only small-scale capabilities at select firms.
  • China produces around 2,40,000 tonnes of REPMs annually—far beyond India’s planned 6,000-tonne capacity under the new scheme, underscoring the vast gap.

Raw Material Bottlenecks: A Key Constraint

  • India produces some light rare-earth oxides through IREL—such as neodymium–praseodymium (NdPr) oxides—but no heavy rare-earth oxides like dysprosium and terbium.
  • These heavy rare earths are essential for high-strength, high-temperature NdFeB magnets.
  • Thus, India will still need to import critical raw materials, limiting true self-reliance.

The Scale and Cost Challenge

  • China’s dominance comes from:
    • Massive production scale
    • Fully integrated value chain
    • Significant subsidies
  • These factors make China’s magnets far cheaper, making cost competitiveness a major hurdle for Indian manufacturers.
  • Unless mandated through policy, users are unlikely to buy magnets that are significantly more expensive than Chinese imports.

Global Diversification Efforts Are Growing

  • A 2022 US Department of Energy report shows that 93% of the global NdFeB magnet market is dominated by sintered magnets—and China controls almost the entire supply chain, from mining to magnet manufacturing. 
  • This has pushed countries worldwide to reduce dependency on China.

International Initiatives to Secure Critical Minerals

  • Quad Initiative (2024) - In July, the Quad countries — India, Australia, Japan, and the US — launched a supply chain initiative to secure access to critical minerals, reducing reliance on China.
  • G7 Critical Minerals Action Plan (2024) - India endorsed the G7’s Critical Minerals Action Plan, which focuses on building diversified and resilient global supply chains.

India’s National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM)

  • Launched in January 2024 for seven years (2024–25 to 2030–31), the NCMM aims to secure India’s critical mineral supply chain through:
    • Reliable domestic and overseas mineral access
    • Strengthening exploration, processing, and recycling
    • Improving technology, regulation, and financing
  • The mission has an outlay of ₹16,300 crore.

Reforming Domestic Mineral Governance

  • In 2023, India identified 30 minerals as “critical”.
  • The government amended the MMDR Act, 1957, giving the Centre exclusive powers to auction critical and strategic minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements.
  • Since the amendment, 34 critical mineral blocks have been auctioned.

Securing Overseas Resources: The Role of KABIL

  • India established Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL), a joint venture tasked with identifying and developing critical mineral assets abroad.
  • KABIL has signed an agreement with Camyen, a state-owned firm in Catamarca, Argentina, to explore and mine five lithium brine blocks, expanding India’s access to essential battery minerals.

Source: IE | TH

REPM Scheme FAQs

Q1: Why has India launched the REPM manufacturing scheme?

Ans: To reduce heavy dependence on China, secure critical supply chains, and meet rising demand for magnets used in EVs, renewable energy, electronics, and defence technologies.

Q2: What does the REPM scheme aim to achieve?

Ans: The scheme targets 6,000 MTPA of integrated magnet capacity, offering ₹6,450 crore in incentives and ₹750 crore capital support across five selected manufacturers.

Q3: Why is China’s dominance a key concern?

Ans: China controls over 90% of REPM production, holds major cost advantages, and has used export restrictions during trade tensions, creating global supply vulnerabilities.

Q4: What raw material challenges does India face?

Ans: India produces some light rare-earth oxides but has no heavy rare-earth production, requiring imports of critical materials like dysprosium and terbium for high-grade magnets.

Q5: What steps is India taking to secure critical minerals?

Ans: India launched NCMM, amended the MMDR Act, auctioned 34 critical blocks, and created KABIL to secure overseas lithium and rare-earth assets for long-term supply.

Insurance Laws Amendment Bill 2025: Big Reform Push for India’s Insurance Sector

December 2, 2025
Insurance Laws Amendment Bill 2025

Insurance Laws Amendment Bill 2025 Latest News

  • The government plans to introduce the Insurance Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2025 in the sixth session of the 18th Lok Sabha, paving the way for a major reform push in India’s underpenetrated insurance sector. 
  • The Bill is expected to receive approval and is viewed by industry stakeholders as a transformative step that could drive growth, attract capital, and spur innovation over the coming decade.

Background: FDI in Insurance Raised to 100%

  • On February 1, 2025, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced a major reform: increasing FDI in insurance from 74% to 100%. 
  • This paves the way for significant foreign capital and participation from global insurance giants, boosting competition and operational efficiency.
  • To implement the higher FDI cap, amendments will be made to:
    • Insurance Act, 1938
    • Life Insurance Corporation Act, 1956
    • IRDAI Act, 1999
  • The Finance Minister had indicated that the draft Insurance Laws (Amendment) Bill will soon be placed before Parliament.

Opening the Door for Global Players

  • Of the world’s top 25 insurers, nearly 20 do not operate in India. The new regime may encourage them to enter the market. 
  • Existing joint ventures may also see restructuring, with foreign partners choosing to buy out Indian stakeholders and set up fully owned subsidiaries.
  • According to an industry experts, India could move towards a 1,000-insurer ecosystem within the next decade, signalling massive expansion, innovation, and increased consumer choice.

Why 100% FDI Could Transform India’s Insurance Sector

  • Raising FDI in insurance to 100% is expected to infuse much-needed capital, enabling insurers to expand their reach, design better products, and upgrade services. 
  • The move aims to improve India’s low insurance penetration, which was 3.7% in 2023–24, far below the global average of 7%.
  • Greater foreign ownership is likely to bring global expertise in underwriting, digital claims processing, and advanced risk assessment—strengthening efficiency, innovation, and customer experience. 
  • It also opens the door for new players to target underserved markets, especially with complementary reforms such as composite licences and streamlined capital norms.
  • Experts say affordability remains the biggest barrier to wider insurance adoption. 
  • Higher FDI, they argue, will help insurers expand offerings, improve underwriting quality, and scale distribution to reach more customers.

Easier Entry Norms to Attract More Reinsurers

  • The Bill proposes lowering the net owned funds requirement for foreign reinsurers from ₹5,000 crore to ₹500 crore, addressing a long-pending industry demand. 
  • This relaxation is expected to attract smaller and new-age global reinsurers to India, increasing competition in a market currently dominated by GIC Re.

Composite Licensing: A Unified Framework for Integrated Insurance

  • The Bill proposes introducing composite licensing, allowing insurers to sell both life and non-life products under a single licence. 
  • This replaces the current rigid structure of the Insurance Act, 1938, which limits insurers to their designated segments.
  • By breaking this long-standing compartmentalisation, composite licences would enable insurers to offer bundled, holistic products—combining life, health, and general coverage. 
  • This shift is expected to attract strong interest from established players and align the industry with customer demand for seamless, integrated insurance solutions.

Lower Capital Requirements to Encourage New and Niche Insurers

  • The Bill proposes reducing minimum capital requirements—currently ₹100 crore for insurers and ₹200 crore for reinsurers—to make market entry easier. 
  • This inclusion-focused reform aims to attract specialised and regional players, especially those targeting rural, informal, and underserved markets. 
  • By broadening participation, it supports India’s long-term vision of achieving “insurance for all” by 2047.

Captive Insurers and Flexible Capital Norms for Corporate Risk Management

  • The Bill proposes allowing large corporations to establish captive insurance entities, enabling them to underwrite their own risks and manage claims more efficiently. 
  • This strengthens self-insurance capabilities and offers greater control over risk exposure.
  • It also introduces differentiated capital norms based on an insurer’s size and category, replacing the current uniform requirements. 
  • This flexibility is expected to foster a more diverse, competitive, and innovation-friendly insurance ecosystem.

Simplified Registration and Greater Flexibility for Insurance Intermediaries

  • The Bill proposes one-time, perpetual registration for insurance intermediaries—ending the three-year renewal cycle and reducing regulatory friction. 
  • Intermediaries would only need to pay annual IRDAI fees.
  • It also plans to allow individual agents to sell products from multiple insurers, removing the current restriction of one life and one general insurer. 
  • This reform is expected to expand distribution, boost competition, and give customers more choice.

Source: IE

Insurance Laws Amendment Bill 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is the aim of the Insurance Laws (Amendment) Bill 2025?

Ans: The Bill seeks to modernise India’s insurance sector through 100% FDI, simplified licensing, lower capital norms, and improved competition to boost penetration and innovation.

Q2: Why is 100% FDI important for the insurance industry?

Ans: Full foreign ownership will bring more capital, global expertise, advanced underwriting, better products, and stronger distribution—helping expand insurance access across underserved markets.

Q3: How will the Bill change reinsurer entry norms?

Ans: It reduces net-owned fund requirements for foreign reinsurers from ₹5,000 crore to ₹500 crore, encouraging smaller and new-age players to enter and diversify the market.

Q4: What is composite licensing and why does it matter?

Ans: Composite licences will allow insurers to offer both life and non-life products, enabling integrated solutions and breaking long-standing regulatory silos.

Q5: How will the Bill help new and niche insurers?

Ans: By lowering capital requirements and allowing captive insurers, the Bill encourages regional, specialised, and corporate players to enter, supporting India’s “insurance for all by 2047” vision.

Sanchar Saathi App, Objectives, CEIR & Its Role, Privacy Concerns

December 2, 2025
Sanchar Saathi App

Sanchar Saathi is a citizen-friendly app developed by the Department of Telecommunications to protect mobile users from fraud and misuse. Its main objectives are to help people check SIM connections, verify device IMEI, and block lost or stolen phones. The CEIR system linked to the app keeps a national IMEI database to stop fake, cloned, or blacklisted mobile devices. The platform improves security, but there is an issue of privacy, if a third party uses it for themselves, and hence stronger guidelines should be issue to protect user information.

Why Sanchar Saathi App in News?

The Sanchar Saathi App has recently been in the news because the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) issued new Directions on 28 November 2025. 

These directions make it mandatory for all mobile phone manufacturers and importers to pre-install the Sanchar Saathi app on every device meant for sale in India.

What is Sanchar Saathi App?

Sanchar Saathi is a mobile application and portal developed by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) to protect telecom users from fraud, identity misuse, and mobile theft. The features includes:

  • Check whether a mobile phone is genuine using its IMEI number
  • Report lost or stolen phones and block them
  • Check all mobile numbers linked to their identity
  • Report fraud calls, scam messages, or suspicious communication
  • View trusted customer-care numbers of banks and financial institutions
  • Chakshu is a citizen-friendly platform launched by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) to help users report and verify suspicious communications such as scam calls, fake customer-care numbers, and phishing messages. 

Sanchar Saathi Portal Objectives

The main objectives of the Sanchar Saathi Portal are:

  • To protect citizens from fake, duplicate, or tampered mobile devices
  • To prevent SIM frauds and identity misuse
  • To help users easily report lost or stolen phones
  • To support cyber safety by identifying and blocking suspicious activity
  • To improve transparency in the telecom system by allowing users to monitor their own mobile connections

Central Equipment Identity Register (CEIR) Role and Functions

The Central Equipment Identity Register (CEIR) is a national database of IMEI numbers. It plays a key role in controlling mobile theft and fraud. Its functions include:

  • Blocking a lost or stolen phone across all Indian telecom networks
  • Preventing the use of blacklisted or fake IMEI numbers
  • Helping police and security agencies track stolen devices
  • Allowing citizens to unblock their devices once they are recovered

Sanchar Saathi App and Data Privacy Concerns

Although the Sanchar Saathi App improves user safety, some concerns have been raised regarding:

  • Storage of IMEI numbers and identity-linked telecom data
  • Possibility of unauthorized access to user data if strong security measures are not maintained
  • Need for clear and transparent policies on data usage, retention, and deletion
  • Potential risks if app permissions are misused by third parties

Way Forward

Going ahead, the Sanchar Saathi app should be made even more user-friendly and accessible to everyone. People must be made aware of how to check IMEI and use the app to report fraud. Strong cooperation between telecom companies, handset makers, and police will further reduce mobile theft and cyber scams.

Sanchar Saathi App FAQs

Q1: Who developed the Sanchar Saathi app?

Ans: The Department of Telecommunications (DoT), Government of India.

Q2: What can I do with the Sanchar Saathi app?

Ans: You can check IMEI genuineness, block a stolen phone, report fraud calls, and check SIM connections linked to your identity.

Q3: Why is the app now mandatory on all phones?

Ans: To protect citizens from fake handsets and telecom frauds, and to make safety tools available to everyone.

Q4: What is CEIR?

Ans: It is a central database that helps block or track lost, stolen, or fake IMEI phones.

Exercise EKUVERIN

December 2, 2025
Exercise Ekuverin

Exercise EKUVERIN Latest News

The 14th edition of the exercise EKUVERIN is set to take place in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. 

About Exercise EKUVERIN

  • Ekuverin meaning ‘Friends’ in Dhivehi language started in the year 2009.
  • Ekuverin is one of the three major joint exercises between India and the Maldives.
  • It is a bilateral military annual exercise conducted alternatively in India and Maldives.
  • The Exercise aims to enhance interoperability while carrying out counterinsurgency and Counter Terrorism operations in semi-urban, jungle and coastal terrain. 
  •  It further focus on integration of niche technology to enhance interoperability, the countries will share best practices, reflecting the shared commitment of India and the Maldives towards peace and security in the region.
  • Other Exercises between India and Maldives: The two bilateral exercises are “Ekuverin” and “Ekatha” and trilateral- “Dosti”, which includes Sri Lanka. 

India and Maldives Relationship

  • India was among the first to recognize Maldives after its independence in 1965 and to establish diplomatic relations with the country.
  • The both countries share ethnic, linguistic, cultural, religious and commercial links steeped in antiquity.

Source: News On Air

Exercise EKUVERIN FAQs

Q1: What is the meaning of 'Ekuverin'?

Ans: Friendship

Q2: What is Exercise Ekuverin?

Ans: A joint military exercise between India and Maldives

Vande Mataram 150 Years Celebration

December 2, 2025
Vande Mataram-150 years Celebration

Vande Mataram 150 Years Celebration Latest News

The Prime Minister of India will inaugurate the year-long commemoration of 150 years of the National Song “Vande Mataram” in New Delhi.

About Vande Mataram 150 Years Celebration

  • “Vande Mataram,” written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in a blend of Sanskrit and Bengali, is the National Song of India.
  • It was first featured in his novel Anand Math in 1882, with its tune composed by Yadunath Bhattacharya.
  • It became a symbol of patriotism during India’s freedom struggle.

Historical Background of Vande Mataram

  • It was initially composed independently and later included in Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel “Anandamath” (published in 1882).
  • It was first sung by Rabindranath Tagore at the 1896 Congress Session in Calcutta.
  • Vande Mataram, as a political slogan, was first used on 7 August 1905.
  • In 1907, Madam Bhikaji Cama raised the tricolour flag for the first-time outside India in Stuttgart, Berlin. The words Vande Mataram were written on the flag.
  • On 24 January 1950, the Constituent Assembly adopted Vande Mataram as the National Song of India.
  • The National Song is held in equal reverence to the national anthem, but it is not mandatory to sing it at any given occasion.

Source: News On Air

Vande Mataram FAQs

Q1: In which novel was Vande Mataram first published?

Ans: Anandamath

Q2: When was Vande Mataram first sung at the Indian National Congress session?

Ans: 1896

Q3: What is the significance of Vande Mataram?

Ans: It is a patriotic song that inspired the Indian independence movement.

Sanchar Saathi

December 2, 2025
Sanchar Saathi

Sanchar Saathi Latest News

The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has made it mandatory for all newly manufactured or imported mobile phones in India to come with the Sanchar Saathi app pre-installed.

About Sanchar Saathi

  • It is a security and awareness platform developed by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT). 
  • It is available both as an app and a web portal.
  • Purpose: To help mobile users manage their digital identity, report suspicious activity, and safeguard their devices. 
  • The platform also provides educational material on telecom safety and cyber risks, making it a combined service-and-awareness system.

Sanchar Saathi Features

  • ‘Chakshu' Feature: It lets users report suspicious calls, SMS, and WhatsApp messages, such as fake KYC alerts, impersonation scams, or phishing links.  It helps authorities spot fraud patterns.
  • Report Spam and Unwanted Commercial Calls: Users can report spam calls and messages that break TRAI rules. Complaints made within seven days can lead to action against the sender.
  • Report Malicious Links and Apps: Allows reporting of phishing links, unsafe APKs, and fraudulent websites. 
  • Checking Mobile Connections Linked To Your Identity: Shows how many mobile numbers are registered using your identity. Helps identify SIM cards taken without your knowledge.
  • Blocking Lost or Stolen Phones: Allows users to block the IMEI of a lost or stolen device so it can't be used. Phones can be unblocked if recovered.
  • Verifying The Authenticity Of A Device: Allows users to check if a phone is genuine by validating its IMEI. It is useful when buying second-hand phones.
  • Reporting International Calls That Appear As Indian Numbers: Some scammers use illegal telecom setups to make international calls appear as regular +91 calls. Sanchar Saathi enables users to report such cases.
  • Finding Your Local Internet Service Provider: The app also includes a feature that lets users check which wired internet service providers are available in their area by entering a PIN code, address, or provider name.
  • Verifying Trusted Contacts and Helpline Numbers: Provides a directory to confirm genuine customer-care numbers, emails, and websites of banks and other major institutions.

Source: FE

Sanchar Saathi FAQs

Q1: What is Sanchar Saathi?

Ans: It is a security and awareness platform.

Q2: Sanchar Saathi has been developed by which government department?

Ans: Department of Telecommunications (DoT)

Q3: Which feature of Sanchar Saathi allows users to report suspicious calls, SMS, or WhatsApp messages?

Ans: Chakshu feature.

Fluoride

December 2, 2025
Fluoride

Fluoride Latest News

Recently, an NGO assessed that, in Odisha’s Mayurbhanj, excess fluoride in drinking water is causing widespread fluorosis in several villages.

About Fluoride

  • Fluoride is an inorganic, monatomic anion of fluorine with the chemical formula F−1. 
  • It is a common element that does not occur in the elemental state in nature because of its high reactivity.
  • It is considered a beneficial nutrient and is present in trace amounts in the body.
  • It is important for the integrity of bones and teeth. About 99% of the fluoride in the body is in the hard tissues.
  • Sources of Fluoride
    • It accounts for about 0.3 g/kg of the Earth’s crust and exists in the form of fluorides in a number of minerals, of which fluorspar, cryolite and fluorapatite are the most common.
    • It is a mineral naturally present in many foods and available as a dietary supplement.
    • Soil, water, plants, and foods contain trace amounts of fluoride.
  • Uses: It is used in aluminium production and as a flux in the steel and glass fibre industries. They can also be released to the environment during the production of phosphate fertilizers, bricks, tiles and ceramics.

Health Impact of Fluoride

  • Dental fluorosis: High fluoride water can negatively impact children’s health, leading to dental fluorosis (discoloured or stained teeth)
  • Skeletal (bone) fluorosis: It also causes potential skeletal fluorosis, which causes bone and joint issues. 

Source: DTE

Fluoride FAQs

Q1: What is the disease caused by excessive fluoride consumption?

Ans: Fluorosis

Q2: Which organization sets the standards for fluoride in drinking water in India?

Ans: BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards)

Trade Enablement and Marketing Scheme

December 2, 2025
Trade Enablement and Marketing Scheme

Trade Enablement and Marketing Scheme Latest News

Recently, the Minister of state for Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises informed the Rajya Sabha about the Trade Enablement and Marketing Scheme.

About Trade Enablement and Marketing Scheme

  • It is the sub scheme of the scheme ‘Raising and Accelerating MSME Performance’ (RAMP), which is a Central Sector Scheme. 
  • The initiative will empower MSMEs with digital tools and guidance to effectively utilize the e-commerce marketplace.
  • Objective: To support MSMEs to help them access different markets by integrating them with e-commerce platforms.
  • Financial Outlay and Duration: The outlay is Rs. 277.35 Cr. for the duration of 3 years from 2024 to 2027.
  • Eligibility Criteria: All the Udyam registered Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs) under manufacturing and services sectors will be eligible for benefits under the Initiative.
  • Targeted beneficiaries: It envisages benefiting 5 lakh Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs) of which 50% are to be women owned MSEs.
  • It focus on;
    • Connecting MSMEs with the ONDC Network.
    • Provides access to digital storefronts, integrated payment systems, and logistics support.
    • Reduce operational barriers and help businesses tap into wider customer bases.
    • It emphasizes formalizing operations and establishing digital transaction histories, which will enhance the credibility and trust of participating MSMEs.
  • Implementing Agency:  National Small Industries Corporation (NSIC)

Source: PIB

Trade Enablement and Marketing Scheme FAQs

Q1: What is the main objective of the TEAM Scheme?

Ans: To empower MSMEs in e-commerce

Q2: What is the duration of the TEAM Scheme?

Ans: 3 years (2024-2027)

Top 10 Longest Rivers in India List, Origin, Length, Other Facts

December 2, 2025
Longest Rivers in India

Top 10 Longest Rivers in India: India, known for its rich network of rivers, depends on these waterways for both its environment and economy. Indian rivers are broadly classified into two types: Himalayan Rivers, which are fed year-round by melting glaciers, and Peninsular Rivers, which rely on seasonal rainfall. Leading them all, the Ganga stretches over 2,525 km, making it the Longest River in India. In this article, we’ll explore the Top 10 Longest Rivers in India List and their importance.

Longest Rivers in India

The Ganges River, or Ganga, stands as Longest Rivers in India, spanning roughly 2,525 kilometers from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. Beyond its length, the Ganga holds deep cultural and spiritual significance, impacting the lives and beliefs of millions across the country. The Ganges River originates high in the Himalayas, beginning its journey at the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand, India. The Ganges River travels through multiple states, starting from Uttarakhand and flowing through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, before merging with the Bay of Bengal. A detailed map of the Ganges highlights its path and the diverse regions it nourishes along the way.

Top 10 Longest Rivers of India

Discover Top 10 Longest Rivers of India ranked by their length:

Top 10 Longest Rivers of India

S.No

River

Length in India (km)

Total Length (km)

Origin

Empties Into

1

Ganga

2,525

2,525

Gangotri Glacier, Uttarakhand

Bay of Bengal

2

Godavari

1,464

1,465

Trimbak, Maharashtra

Bay of Bengal

3

Krishna

1,400

1,400

Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra

Bay of Bengal

4

Yamuna

1,376

1,376

Yamunotri Glacier, Uttarakhand

Confluence with Ganga

5

Narmada

1,312

1,312

Amarkantak Plateau, Madhya Pradesh

Arabian Sea

6

Indus

1,114

3,180

Tibet (near Lake Mansarovar)

Arabian Sea

7

Brahmaputra

916

2,900

Angsi Glacier, Tibet

Bay of Bengal

8

Mahanadi

890

890

Sihawa Hills, Chhattisgarh

Bay of Bengal

9

Cauvery

800

800

Brahmagiri Hills, Karnataka

Bay of Bengal

10

Tapi (Tapti)

724

724

Satpura Range, Madhya Pradesh

Arabian Sea

Longest Rivers in India in Brief

Top 10 Longest Rivers of India each tell a unique story as they flow across the country, sustaining its people, culture, and rich history. From the mighty Ganga, the longest, to the more modest Tapi, these rivers shape India’s landscapes and heritage. Here’s a closer look at the Top 10 Longest Rivers of India:

Ganga River

The Ganga River, with a total length of 2,525 kilometers, holds the title of the Longest River in India, flowing entirely through the mainland. It originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand and travels across multiple states, including Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal, before merging with the Bay of Bengal. Along its journey, the Ganga is fed by numerous tributaries. On the left bank, it receives waters from the Ramganga, Garra, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Koshi, and Mahananda rivers. Its right bank tributaries include the Yamuna, Tamsa, Son, Punpun, Kiul, Karmanasa, and Chandan rivers.

Godavari River

The Godavari River, spanning a length of 1,464 kilometers, holds the title of the Longest Rivers in India in peninsular region. It originates from the Triambakeshwar region near Nashik in Maharashtra. The river flows through the states of Chhattisgarh, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. Along its journey, the Godavari is joined by several tributaries: the left bank tributaries include the Banganga, Kadva, Shivana, and Purna rivers, while the right bank tributaries are Nasardi, Darna, and Pravara.

Krishna River

The Krishna River spans 1,400 kilometers, originating from the Western Ghats at an elevation of approximately 1,337 meters, just north of Mahabaleshwar, about 64 kilometers from the Arabian Sea. Its left bank tributaries include the Bhima, Dindi Musi, Paleru, and Munneru rivers, while the right bank is fed by the Vienna, Koyna, and Panchganga rivers. The Krishna River ultimately flows into the Bay of Bengal. Known for its vital role in irrigation, it is a major water source for the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.

Yamuna River

The Yamuna River, spanning a length of 1,376 kilometers, originates from the Yamunotri Glacier, located at the Banderpoonch Peak in Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand. As one of the primary tributaries of the Ganges, the Yamuna’s tributaries include Hindon, Sharda on the left bank, and Chambal, Betwa, and Ken on the right. The river flows through several key states, including Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.

Narmada River

The Narmada River, stretching over 1,312 kilometers, originates from the Amarkantak Peak in Madhya Pradesh. Its left-bank tributaries include Burhner, Banjar, Sher, and Karjan, while the right bank tributaries consist of Hiran, Tendoni, and Choral. The river flows westward, ultimately emptying into the Arabian Sea. Often referred to as the "Lifeline of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat," the Narmada plays a crucial role in the agricultural and economic development of both states.

Indus River

The Indus River holds the distinction of being the longest river in terms of the total distance it covers, stretching over 3,180 kilometers. However, within India, it flows for approximately 1,114 kilometers, with the majority of the river's course running through present-day Pakistan. Originating from the northern slopes of the Kailash Range in Tibet, near Lake Manasarovar, the river traverses vast regions. Prominent cities situated along its banks include Leh and Skardu. The river is fed by several tributaries, with the left bank contributing Zanskar, Suru, Soan, Jhelum, Chenab, and Luni, while the right bank is nourished by Shyok, Hunza, Gilgit, Gomal, and Zhob. Ultimately, the Indus River empties into the Arabian Sea.

Brahmaputra River

The Brahmaputra River, stretching 2,900 kilometers from Tibet’s Kailash Ranges, flows 916 kilometers through India, entering via Arunachal Pradesh. Its left bank tributaries include Dibang, Lohit, and Dhansiri, while the right bank is fed by Kameng, Manas, Jaldhaka, Teesta, and Subansiri. In Bangladesh, it becomes the Jamuna River, merging with the Padma (Ganges) before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. Majuli, an island in Assam’s Brahmaputra, became India’s first river island district in 2016, once covering 880 square kilometers at the turn of the 20th century.

Mahanadi River

The Mahanadi River, stretching 890 km, begins its journey in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh. Its left bank tributaries include the Mand, Ib, and Hasdeo rivers, while its right bank tributaries are the Ong and Parry. The river ultimately empties into the Bay of Bengal. Due to its impact on Odisha, it has historically been referred to as "the distress of Odisha." However, the construction of the Hirakud Dam has significantly changed the situation, providing much-needed regulation and flood control.

Cauvery River

The Cauvery River, spanning 800 km, originates from the Brahmagiri Range in the Western Ghats, located in the Coorg District of Karnataka. On its left bank lies the Harangi Reservoir, while its primary right bank tributary is the Lakshmana Tirtha. The river ultimately flows toward the Grand Anicut in the south, before branching into numerous distributaries. These tributaries form a vast delta, often referred to as the "Garden of Southern India," before the Cauvery empties into the Bay of Bengal, in Tamil Nadu.

Tapi River

The Tapi River, stretching over 724 kilometers, begins its journey from the Satpura Range. It flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat before emptying into the Gulf of Khambhat, part of the Arabian Sea. The river is fed by six tributaries, including Purna and Girna.

Largest River in India

The Ganga is the largest river in India, stretching for about 2,525 kilometers. It originates from the Himalayas, flows across northern India, and enters Bangladesh before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. Beyond its geographical significance, the Ganges holds immense cultural and spiritual importance for Hindus, who revere it as a sacred goddess.

Top 10 Longest Rivers in India FAQs

Q1: Which is the longest river in India?

Ans: The Ganges River is the longest river in India with a length of 2525 Kms.

Q2: Which is the inland longest river of India?

Ans: Ganges is the longest inland river of India.

Q3: Which is the longest tributary river of India?

Ans: Yamuna is the longest tributary river of India.

Q4: Which is the longest river of South India?

Ans: Godavari is the longest river of South India.

Q5: Which is the largest river island of India?

Ans: Majuli is the largest river island of India.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984, Causes, Deaths, Impacts

December 2, 2025
Bhopal Gas Tragedy

2nd and 3rd December mark the 40th anniversary of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, which is considered the worst industrial disaster in history that occurred in the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. This event left a lasting imprint on public health, the environment, and industrial safety practices, moreover killed thousands of peopke instantly and left lasting scars on survivors, future generations, and the environment.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984

The Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) owned by the Indian subsidiary of the American firm union carbide corporation was established in 1969 and the primary objective was to produce the pesticide named Sevin, with the brand name for carbaryl. The production process involved the use of methyl isocyanate (MIC) as an intermediary. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984 took place on December 2nd, 1984 where around 40 tons of MIC gas leaked into the atmosphere over several hours. People woke up coughing, choking, and experiencing severe burns and irritation in their eyes and lungs. 

In just a few hours hundreds of people died, many people tried to cross the border of Bhopal. This incidence left people with many health diseases, respiratory issues, maladies and blindness resulting from exposure to toxic gas. The Indian government began relief operations and declared the area a disaster zone. The government provided monetary aid to the victims.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy Causes

Bhopal Gas Tragedy is considered the world’s worst industrial disaster due to the loss of human lives, environmental, and economic losses. That incident was caused due to technical failures, managerial negligence, and systemic issues. Below we have mentioned the factors that led to the disaster:

  1. Union Carbide plant in Bhopal was not designed to handle hazardous chemicals like MIC. Multiple tanks were connected, increasing the risk of leaks. Only a single scrubber was installed to neutralize leaking MIC gas, which was inadequate for the quantity stored.
  2. The refrigeration system had been shut down to cut costs, and the flare tower was out of service.
  3. The plant was functional without adequate safety measures and measures to take in the emergency.
  4. Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) prioritized profit over safety. Audits and maintenance schedules were neglected to minimize expenses.
  5. The plant stored large quantities of MIC, exceeding safety limits which increased the risk of a sudden and total failure that is impossible to recover from.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy Impacts

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy was the most disturbing incident impacting thousands of lives and causing widespread damage to the environment and local infrastructure. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy Impacts are mentioned below to have a brief insight.

  1. Within the first few hours, thousands of people lost their lives due to direct exposure to the toxic gas. Victims experienced choking, acute respiratory failure which led to sudden death.
  2. Tens of thousands suffered from health issues, including, Respiratory problems, Chemical burns on exposed skin, Eye damage, permanent blindness.
  3. Bhopal’s hospitals were unequipped to handle the sudden increase of patients. Doctors lacked knowledge about treating MIC poisoning, resulting in delayed or inappropriate medical interventions.
  4. The leaked gas, along with other toxic chemicals at the plant, polluted the soil and groundwater. The water sources became contaminated, affecting the health of people and animals who relied on them.
  5. Local industries and livelihoods were disrupted as businesses shut down, many victims were unable to return to work, resulting in poverty.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy Government Responses

The Government of India responses to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy evolved over time, including immediate relief measures, legal actions, and long-term policy changes. Check out the Bhopal Gas Tragedy Government Responses which are appreciated and criticised by the people.

  1. The government declared Bhopal a disaster zone immediately after the tragedy. Evacuation for the victims were initiated. Temporary shelters were set up for displaced residents. Authorities began investigating the incident, focusing on the cause of the leak and the role of Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL).
  2. The Indian government passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster (Processing of Claims) Act, 1985. In 1989, the government negotiated a $470 million settlement with Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) which was criticised as insufficient according to the losses from the tragedy.
  3. The Bhopal disaster initiated significant changes in India’s regulatory framework for environmental and industrial safety:
  • Environment Protection Act, 1986: Gave the government powers to protect and improve the environment.
  • Amendments to the Factories Act, 1948: Introduced stricter safety provisions for industries handling hazardous materials.
  • Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: Ensured quick compensation for victims of industrial accidents without lengthy cases.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy FAQs

Q1: What is the Bhopal Gas Tragedy?

Ans: The Bhopal Gas Tragedy occurred on December 3, 1984, when gas named methyl isocyanate leaked, killing thousands in Bhopal.

Q2: How many people died in the Bhopal disaster?

Ans: The Bhopal disaster affected thousands of people due to poisonous gas leakage, contaminating land and water for years, harming health.

Q3: What was the amount of methyl isocyanate leaked from the Bhopal gas tragedy?

Ans: Around 40-45 leaks of methyl isocyanate occurred from an insecticide plant between 2 and 2:30 a.m., affecting over 500,000 people.

Q4: Which Company was Involved in the Disaster?

Ans: The Union Carbide Company, which was a major pesticide manufacturer, was involved in the disaster.

Q5: Which Laws were introduced post the Disaster?

Ans: Environment Protection Act, 1986, Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

Hornbill Festival

December 2, 2025
Hornbill Festival

Hornbill Festival Latest News

Recently, the 26th edition of Nagaland's iconic Hornbill Festival kicked off with great enthusiasm.

About Hornbill Festival

  • It was first organized in the year 2000.
  • It aims to promote inter-tribal interaction and preserve Nagaland’s heritage, blending the traditional with the contemporary in a harmonious display of unity.
  • It is also called the festival of festivals and is held every year.
  • Organised by: It is organized by the State Tourism and Art & Culture Departments of the Government of Nagaland.
  • It is celebrated at Naga Heritage Village, Kisama which is about 12 km from Kohima in Nagaland.
  • It has evolved into a celebration showcasing the diverse and vibrant cultural and traditional heritage of the tribes of Nagaland.
  • It was named after the Hornbill bird given its association with the socio-cultural life of the Nagas.
  • Theme of 2025 festival:  Cultural Connect
  • This year Nagaland has officially named Switzerland and Ireland as country partners for the Hornbill Festival 2025.

Source: IE

Hornbill Festival FAQs

Q1: Where is the Hornbill Festival celebrated?

Ans: Nagaland

Q2: Which bird is the Hornbill Festival named after?

Ans: Great Indian Hornbill

G20 Summit 2025, Theme, Venue, Countries List, Objectives, Key Points

December 2, 2025
G20 Summit 2025

The G20 Summit 2025, hosted in Johannesburg on 22–23 November, was the first time the leaders’ meeting took place on African soil, giving the Global South a more prominent platform. The South African presidency prioritised climate adaptation, debt relief, inclusive industrialisation, and upgrading global governance to better represent developing economies. The summit produced a lengthy Leaders’ Declaration focused on resilience, equity and sustainable development, but it also exposed diplomatic rifts that complicated unanimous endorsement by every guest.

G20 Summit 2025

The 2025 G20 Johannesburg Summit, held on 22-23 November 2025 at the Johannesburg Expo Centre, marked the 20th meeting of the G20 and the first-ever summit hosted on the African continent. South Africa used this opportunity to highlight Africa’s development priorities, global equity, and South-South cooperation. The summit gained attention due to the absence of top leaders from major economies, including China’s Xi Jinping and U.S. President Donald Trump. Despite this, leaders focused on global economic recovery, climate resilience, and digital cooperation.

G20 Summit 2025 Theme

South Africa has selected the G20 Summit 2025 Theme “Solidarity, Equality and Sustainability” for its G20 Presidency, reflecting the group’s original mission and values. The theme emphasises collective action, fairness in global development, and long-term environmental responsibility. It aims to strengthen unity among nations while promoting inclusive and sustainable growth worldwide.

G20 Summit 2025 Outcomes

The 2025 G20 Summit is expected to focus on delivering stronger commitments on global economic stability, climate financing, and digital cooperation under South Africa’s leadership.

  • Scale up climate adaptation support and technical assistance for vulnerable countries.
  • Strengthen debt sustainability frameworks and creditor coordination.
  • Boost food security efforts and support smallholders and supply chains.
  • Support digital public infrastructure and AI governance dialogues.
  • Advance industrialisation and value-chain development for critical minerals. 

G20 Historical Background

The G20 was established in 1999 in the aftermath of the Asian Financial Crisis to bring together major advanced and emerging economies for global economic coordination. Initially a finance ministers’ forum, it evolved into a Leaders’ Summit in 2008 after the Global Financial Crisis.

  • Formed in 1999 by G7 finance ministers and central bank governors to prevent future financial crises.
  • Initially functioned as a finance ministers’ and central bank governors’ forum before expanding to leaders’ summits in 2008.
  • The shift to leaders’ meetings came during the Global Financial Crisis, positioning the G20 at the center of global economic recovery.
  • Represents 85% of global GDP, 75% of global trade, and around two-thirds of the world’s population, giving it unmatched influence.
  • Membership includes a mix of advanced and emerging economies, ensuring a broad, inclusive approach to global challenges.
  • Over the years, the G20 agenda expanded from macroeconomic coordination to climate change, health security, digital transformation, terrorism financing, and sustainable development.
  • Played a major role in creating global financial reforms, including Basel III, strengthening financial institutions, and enhancing global regulatory cooperation.
  • Supported major global commitments such as the Paris Agreement, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and debt relief initiatives for vulnerable nations.

G20 Member Countries List

The G20 Member Countries includes 19 countries: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Türkiye, the United Kingdom, and the United States, along with the European Union and, since 2023, the African Union as a permanent member.

G20 Member Countries List
Member / Bloc Founding member (finance-level) Year joined

Argentina

Yes

1999

Australia

Yes

1999

Brazil

Yes

1999

Canada

Yes

1999

China

Yes

1999

France

Yes

1999

Germany

Yes

1999

India

Yes

1999

Indonesia

Yes

1999

Italy

Yes

1999

Japan

Yes

1999

Republic of Korea

Yes

1999

Mexico

Yes

1999

Russia

Yes

1999

Saudi Arabia

Yes

1999

South Africa

Yes

1999

Türkiye

Yes

1999

United Kingdom

Yes

1999

United States

Yes

1999

European Union (institutional)

Yes (institutional member)

1999

African Union (AU)

No (added later)

2023

G20 Countries Objectives

The G20 Countries aims to promote stable, inclusive, and sustainable global economic growth by coordinating macroeconomic policies among major economies. It works to strengthen financial regulation, ensure resilient supply chains, and support developing countries through equitable reforms.

  • Global Economic Stability: Enhance coordination on fiscal, monetary, and structural policies to prevent crises.
  • Financial Sector Reforms: Strengthen the stability and regulation of global financial institutions and markets.
  • Sustainable Development & SDGs: Mobilize funds and policies for poverty reduction, climate resilience, and green growth.
  • International Taxation: Create fair taxation frameworks, including digital tax rules and BEPS (Base Erosion and Profit Shifting) reforms.
  • Trade & Investment: Promote open, transparent, and rules-based global trade systems under WTO principles.
  • Climate Action: Advance commitments to energy transition, climate finance, and disaster resilience.
  • Digital Transformation: Expand digital infrastructure, cybersecurity norms, and AI governance.
  • Global Health Security: Enhance pandemic preparedness, vaccine equity, and health system resilience.
  • Support for Global South: Improve debt sustainability, development financing, and capacity-building initiatives.
  • Food & Energy Security: Strengthen global cooperation to ensure affordable, accessible, and sustainable supplies.

G20 Countries Issues

Despite its global influence, the G20 Countires faces several challenges that hinder coherent and effective decision-making. Geopolitical tensions, competing economic interests, and disagreements on climate finance often slow down consensus-based outcomes. Developing nations demand greater equity and climate justice, while advanced economies differ on commitments related to emissions, trade, and taxation.

  • Geopolitical Conflicts: Russia-Ukraine war, US-China tensions, Middle East instability affecting cooperation.
  • Climate Finance Gap: Developed nations yet to fully deliver the promised $100 billion/year for climate adaptation and mitigation.
  • Debt Crisis in Poor Nations: Rising debt distress in Sub-Saharan Africa, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, etc., with limited G20 consensus on restructuring.
  • Global Trade Fragmentation: Protectionism, tariff wars, and supply chain disruptions limiting free trade.
  • Inequity Between Members: Advanced economies push innovation goals, while developing economies focus on development finance and energy security.
  • Energy Transition Divide: Conflicts over phasing out fossil fuels versus ensuring affordable energy access.
  • Digital Inequality: Unequal access to digital infrastructure limits growth in developing economies.
  • Slow Decision-Making: Consensus-based system makes rapid global crisis responses difficult.Global Tax Reform Delays: Implementation challenges of OECD’s minimum corporate tax framework.
  • Multilateral System Weakening: Overlapping institutions and loss of trust in global governance frameworks.

G20 Countries Way Forward

The G20 must strengthen multilateralism, bridge geopolitical divides, and prioritize inclusive growth to ensure global stability. Future cooperation requires greater climate finance, debt relief mechanisms, and investment in digital transformation to support developing economies.

  • Revive Multilateralism: Promote consensus-building and strengthen global governance institutions.
  • Debt Relief Mechanisms: Implement faster and more transparent debt restructuring frameworks for vulnerable nations.
  • Boost Climate Finance: Ensure predictable funding for mitigation, adaptation, and energy transition.
  • Promote Digital Inclusivity: Support global digital infrastructure, cybersecurity cooperation, and AI governance.
  • Reform Global Institutions: Restructure IMF quotas, WTO rules, and UN frameworks for better Global South representation.
  • Strengthen Supply Chains: Diversify critical sectors like semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, and green technologies.
  • Enhance Global Health Security: Expand vaccine manufacturing, disease surveillance, and health-emergency financing.
  • Support Sustainable Development: Prioritise SDGs, food security, gender equality, and green infrastructure investment.

G20 Summit 2025 FAQs

Q1: Where was the G20 Summit 2025 held?

Ans: It was held at the Johannesburg Expo Centre, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Q2: What was the theme of the G20 Summit 2025?

Ans: The theme was “Solidarity, Equality and Sustainability.”

Q3: Why is the 2025 summit historically significant?

Ans: It was the first G20 Summit hosted on the African continent.

Q4: Which major leaders did not attend the summit?

Ans: Chinese President Xi Jinping and US President Donald Trump were absent.

Q5: What were the key focus areas of the 2025 G20 Summit?

Ans: Climate finance, global economic stability, digital transformation, debt relief, and sustainable development.

Enquire Now