Articles on 2 September 2025

by Vajiram & Ravi - 2 September 2025

Vajiram & Ravi provides Daily articles for 2 September 2025, tailored for aspirants. We cover all relevant news and events crucial for the exam, ensuring you stay updated & well-prepared.

Treaty of Salbai, Significance, Sequence of Events, Key Details

September 2, 2025
Treaty of Salbai

The Treaty of Salbai brought the First Anglo-Maratha War to an end on 17th May 1782. The war was going on between the Marathas and the British East India Company. Salbai is located in Gwalior district of Madhya Pradesh. In this article, we are going to cover the treaty of Salbai, the sequence of events and the importance of the treaty.

Treaty of Salbai

The Treaty of Salbai, which helped in bringing the First Anglo-Maratha War to an end, was concluded on 17 May 1782 between the Marathas and the British East India Company. Salbai lies in the Gwalior district of Madhya Pradesh. The treaty was signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadji Scindia.

Treaty of Salbai Sequence of Events

The First Anglo-Maratha War commenced in 1775 after the Treaty of Surat was signed between Raghunathrao, uncle of Peshwa Narayanrao, and the East India Company in Bombay. Raghunathrao harbored aspirations of becoming Peshwa and sought British support.

However, the Calcutta Council of the Company endorsed Narayanrao and his astute minister Nana Phadnavis. They concluded the Treaty of Purandar (1776), which annulled the Surat agreement. This new pact granted Salsette to the British while providing Raghunathrao with a pension.

Despite this, relations worsened when the Bombay Council sheltered Raghunathrao, and Nana Phadnavis allowed the French to use a port. Tensions escalated and culminated in the Battle of Wadgaon, where Mahadaji Shinde led the Marathas to victory over the British, compelling them to accept the Treaty of Wadgaon.

Further confrontations continued, and eventually, negotiations paved the way for the Treaty of Salbai, which formally ended hostilities. Under the agreement, Salsette and Broach (Bharuch) remained with the Company. The Marathas pledged to defeat Mysore’s Hyder Ali, reclaim their lost Carnatic territories, and prevent any French settlements in their domains.

The British, on their side, recognized Madhavrao II, Narayanrao’s son, as the legitimate Peshwa and granted a pension to Raghunathrao. They also accepted Mahadaji Shinde’s control of territories west of the Yamuna and returned to the Marathas all lands acquired after the Purandar Treaty.

Though the treaty ensured two decades of relative calm, the truce eventually collapsed, and the Second Anglo-Maratha War broke out in 1802.

Significance of the Treaty of Salbai 

The Treaty of Salbai had the following significance: 

  • Ended the First Anglo-Maratha War : It brought peace after seven years of conflict between the Marathas and the British East India Company.
  • Restored Balance of Power:  The treaty maintained a political balance, with neither side gaining a decisive upper hand.
  • Recognition of Madhavrao II: The British formally accepted Madhavrao II as the rightful Peshwa, strengthening Maratha legitimacy.
  • Maratha Unity Consolidated: Mahadaji Shinde’s leadership was acknowledged, and Maratha power was reaffirmed in northern India.
  • British Strategic Gains: The Company retained Salsette and Broach (Bharuch), expanding its foothold on the western coast.
  • Check on French Influence:  The Marathas agreed not to allow the French into their territories, which aligned with British strategic interests.
  • Temporary Peace: It secured nearly 20 years of relative peace (1782–1802), delaying further Anglo-Maratha conflict until the Second Anglo-Maratha War.
  • Impact on Mysore Relations: The Marathas were obliged to assist the British against Hyder Ali of Mysore, tilting the balance in southern India.

Treaty of Salbai FAQs

Q1: What were the points of the Treaty of Salbai?

Ans: The treaty ended the First Anglo-Maratha War, recognized Madhavrao II as Peshwa, confirmed British control over Salsette and Broach, restricted French influence, and secured peace for 20 years.

Q2: Which Peshwa signed the Treaty of Salbai?

Ans: Peshwa Madhavrao II was recognized under the Treaty of Salbai.

Q3: What was the Treaty of Salbai in 1802?

Ans: There was no Treaty of Salbai in 1802; the reference is to the Treaty of Bassein (1802).

Q4: Who was the Governor-General of India during the Treaty of Salbai?

Ans: Warren Hastings was the Governor-General of India when the Treaty of Salbai was signed in 1782.

Q5: Which Treaty was signed in 1802?

Ans: The Treaty of Bassein (1802) was signed between the British East India Company and Peshwa Baji Rao II.

Treaty of Versailles, Provisions, Background, Implementation, Impact

September 2, 2025
Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was a document signed in between Allied powers and Germany in 1919. The Treaty was responsible for officially ending World War I that took place in between Germany and the Allied Powers. The document was signed at the Palace of Versailles near Paris and hence is known by the name Treaty of Versailles. The treaty was an important contributing factor in the outbreak of the Second World War. In this article, we are going to cover the Treaty of Versailles, its historical background, important points and implementation process. 

Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919 and marked the end of World War I. The treaty focused on Germany and imposed penalties on the nation. Germany was blamed for the war and had to face harsh terms, including territorial losses, disarmament and massive reparations. This was done to weaken Germany and prevent its resurgence. After the signing of this treaty, the League of Nations was established. It was an international organisation that was responsible for maintaining peace and cooperation between the nations. This helped prevent future conflicts. The Treaty of Versailles also criticized its harshness and the economic difficulties imposed on Germany and contributed to the grievances that led to World War II. 

Treaty of Versailles Provisions

Treaty of Versailles had the following key provisions:

  • Prohibition of secret agreements among countries 
  • Reduction of armaments and standing forces
  • Recognising the right of self-determination, restricting one nationality from dominating another. 
  • Compulsory membership for all nations in the League of Nations

Treaty of Versailles 1919 Background

The peace agreement came after the conclusion of war in 1918 and the Russian Revolution and ongoing events in Russia. The agreement was signed in the Palace of Versailles near Paris by Germany and the Allied Powers. The negotiators were David Lloyd George of Britain, George of Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France and Woodrow Wilson of the United States. The allies were unwilling to show leniency towards Germany and its defeated partners, making them directly accountable for the war. Germany was excluded from the drafting process. The backdrop included the deadly Spanish flu outbreak of mid 1918 killing nearly 25 million people, heightening anger across Europe, mostly directly at Germany. After months of debate among the “Big Three,” the treaty was signed on June 28, 1919.

The Paris Peace Settlement

Delegates from 32 nations gathered in Paris in 1919 to draft the peace terms. The decision-making authority rested with the “Big Three,” with Italy playing a smaller role. The settlement resulted in five major treaties that are the Versailles, St. Germain, Trianon, Neuilly, and Sevres/Lausanne.The Treaty of Versailles was specifically concerned with Germany, dominating discussions throughout the conference, while the other treaties dealt with territorial and economic restructuring in Europe.

Treaty of Versailles and Wilson’s Fourteen Points

In 1918, U.S. President Wilson addressed Congress during what he called “the war to end all wars.” He presented an optimistic vision of global peace, suggesting territorial adjustments if the Allies triumphed and emphasizing that nationalities should govern themselves. His most significant proposal was the creation of an international body to resolve disputes and prevent wars. This later became the League of Nations. On November 11, 1918, Germany agreed to an armistice, assuming Wilson’s ideals would shape the eventual peace. However, the final treaty largely disregarded his vision. His Fourteen Points included:

  • Transparency in diplomacy with no secret treaties.
  • Freedom of navigation during war and peace.
  • Equal trade opportunities for all nations.
  • Reduction of military capacities worldwide.
  • Negotiation of colonial disputes.
  • Recognition of Russia’s independence.
  • Restoration of Belgium.
  • Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France.
  • Adjustment of Italy’s borders through diplomacy.
  • Autonomy for Austria-Hungary.
  • Redefinition of Balkan boundaries for Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.
  • Establishment of Turkey with free passage through the Dardanelles.
  • Formation of an independent Polish state.
  • Founding of a League of Nations to uphold cooperation.

Treaty of Versailles Implementation

The agreement of Versailles was monumental and enforced tough penalties on Germany. Its outcomes can be grouped into three areas:

  • Reparations: Germany had to compensate the victorious nations, as it was blamed for the war. The figure was set at 132 billion gold marks, about 269 billion USD today. The already weakened German economy worsened under this burden.
  • Territorial Changes: Germany’s borders were redrawn. Lands were ceded to Poland, including the “Polish Corridor,” while other territories went to France, Belgium, and Denmark. This loss reduced Germany’s size and population, creating resentment among Germans.
  • Rhineland Occupation: The Rhineland in western Germany was occupied by Allied troops. This demilitarized zone ensured Germany could not mount aggression, but it bred further German hostility. The occupation lasted until 1930.
  • The treaty was expected to maintain long-term peace but instead bred dissatisfaction, setting the stage for another global conflict.

Treaty of Versailles Impact

The Treaty of Versailles had the following impacts: 

  • Territorial Losses:
    • The Saar Basin was placed under League of Nations control.
    • A new Polish state was established with West Prussia and Posen.
    • Alsace-Lorraine was restored to France.
    • Danzig became a “free city.”
    • Referendums were held in Schleswig, Upper Silesia, and West Prussia.
    • German colonies and overseas investments were lost.
  • Military Restrictions
    • The German army was capped at 100,000 men.
    • No air force was permitted, and only a minimal navy remained.
    • Conscription was abolished.
    • Allied forces occupied the Rhineland for 15 years.
    • Commissions overseeing German military affairs remained until 1927.
  • Reparations:
    • Germany had to pay £6,600 million.
  • Payments were made through gold and goods.
  • By 1923, when Germany defaulted, France occupied the Ruhr.

German Reaction to the Treaty

Germany had anticipated milder terms shaped by Wilson’s principles. The nation objected to:

  • Accepting blame for the war.
  • Being excluded from the discussions.
  • Signing under compulsion without negotiations.
  • Harsh reparations and territorial concessions.
  • Denial of self-determination in German-inhabited areas.

The population viewed the treaty as humiliating and demanded its reversal.

Treaty of Versailles FAQs

Q1: What are the main points of the Treaty of Versailles?

Ans: The provisions of Treaty of Versailles included Disarmament of Germany, territorial losses, war reparations, and creation of the League of Nations.

Q2: What are the 5 treaties of Versailles?

Ans: The 5 treaties of Versailles are Versailles, St. Germain, Trianon, Neuilly, and Sevres (later Lausanne).

Q3: What are the 4 things the Treaty of Versailles did?

Ans: The treaty of Versailles imposed reparations, reduced Germany’s military, redrew European borders, and established the League of Nations.

Q4: How many countries signed the Treaty of Versailles?

Ans: The peace settlement involved representatives of 32 nations, though Germany signed under compulsion.

Q5: Which Indian signed the Treaty of Versailles?

Ans: Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner signed on behalf of India.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Political Strategy, Key Contribution, Vision of Nationalism

September 2, 2025
Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, referred to as Quaid-e-Azam (Great Leader), was the architect of Pakistan and a defining figure in South Asian history. His vision, determination, and political strategy were central to the creation of a separate homeland for Muslims, earning him enduring respect across generations. Born on December 25, 1876, in Karachi (then part of British India, now Pakistan), his birthday is observed as a national holiday in Pakistan.

Trained as a barrister at London’s Lincoln’s Inn, Jinnah built a flourishing legal career at the Bombay High Court before dedicating himself fully to politics. Over time, his understanding of India’s political landscape and his commitment to safeguarding Muslim identity reshaped his path, marking the beginning of a transformative journey in public life.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah Political Strategy

  • Muhammad Ali Jinnah's political journey was marked by a gradual but decisive transformation in ideology and strategy. In his early years, he championed Hindu-Muslim unity as a member of the Indian National Congress (INC). 
  • His role in the 1916 Lucknow Pact between the INC and the All-India Muslim League reflected his belief that cooperation could secure India greater autonomy while safeguarding Muslim rights.
  • This stance shifted in the 1920s, when Jinnah grew disappointed with Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement, which he considered disorderly and impractical. 
  • He distanced himself from the Congress, and the 1937 provincial elections further widened the divide when the Congress refused to share power with the Muslim League, increasing communal tensions.
  • By 1940, Jinnah had become the chief spokesperson for Muslim aspirations. At the Lahore Session of the Muslim League, he declared that Hindus and Muslims were two distinct nations and demanded a separate homeland. This vision resulted in the creation of Pakistan on August 14, 1947.
  • As First Governor-General of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah guided the fledgling state through its earliest challenges, laying the foundations of governance and national identity. 
  • His leadership lasted only a year, as he succumbed to tuberculosis on September 11, 1948, but his legacy as the founder of Pakistan endures.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah Key Contribution

  • Muhammad Ali Jinnah strongly opposed the exploitative Salt Tax, calling it unjust and oppressive. His stance highlighted his concern for India’s economic hardships under colonial rule.
  • He played a central role in drafting the Lucknow Pact, which brought the Congress and Muslim League together. This pact symbolized Hindu-Muslim unity and aimed at securing political rights for both groups.
  • Through the All-India Home Rule League, Jinnah presented his famous 14 points, demanding constitutional reforms that ensured fair Muslim representation and safeguarded their interests in a united India.
  • Throughout his career, he consistently raised the issue of Muslim marginalization. He pushed for systemic changes to address economic inequality and provide opportunities for the upliftment of the community.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah Vision of Nationalism

  • Two-Nation Theory: At the core of Muhammad Ali Jinnah political thought was the Two-Nation Theory. He argued that Hindus and Muslims were not just communities within one nation but separate nations altogether, each with its own culture, religion, and political interests. For him, only a sovereign Muslim state could guarantee freedom from the dominance of a Hindu-majority India.
  • Inclusive Governance: Yet, Muhammad Ali Jinnah Vision of Nationalism was not narrow or exclusionary. He consistently spoke of equality, justice, and religious freedom as guiding principles of the new state. In his first address as Governor-General, he stressed that all citizens whether Hindu, Sikh, Christian, or Muslim would enjoy equal rights, laying the foundation for an inclusive national identity.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah Perspective on Muslim Minority

Muhammad Ali Jinnah strongly highlighted the economic backwardness of Indian Muslims, who were disadvantaged in trade, education, and employment compared to other communities. He consistently advocated measures to bridge this gap and envisioned policies that would promote economic progress for Muslims in a separate state.

Beyond economic concerns, Muhammad Ali Jinnah believed that only an independent nation could guarantee the cultural, political, and social rights of Muslims. According to him, such a state was essential for preserving their identity and ensuring their advancement without being overshadowed by the Hindu majority. This conviction became a core part of his demand for Pakistan, as he saw autonomy not only as a political necessity but also as a safeguard for Muslim dignity, security, and progress.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah FAQs

Q1: Was Muhammad Ali Jinnah a Hindu?

Ans: No. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born into a Khoja Muslim family in Karachi in 1876. He practiced Islam and later became the key leader of the All-India Muslim League, advocating for a separate Muslim homeland, which eventually became Pakistan.

Q2: What is Muhammad Ali Jinnah known for?

Ans: He is best known as the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah played the central role in the creation of an independent Muslim state in 1947 and is often referred to as Quaid-e-Azam (Great Leader) in Pakistan.

Q3: Was Muhammad Ali Jinnah a Gujarati?

Ans: Yes. Jinnah’s family belonged to the Khoja community, which has roots in Gujarat. Though he was born in Karachi, his ancestral background traces back to Kathiawar, Gujarat.

Q4: Who is father of the nation of Pakistan?

Ans: Muhammad Ali Jinnah is honored as the Father of the Nation in Pakistan for his leadership in the Pakistan Movement and his role in achieving independence.

Q5: Which Hindu king ruled Pakistan?

Ans: Before the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the region was part of British India and earlier under various rulers.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Biography, Career, Early Contributions

September 2, 2025
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was an influential reformer, thinker and educationist of 19th century India. He wrote the booklet ‘Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind’ that talked about the ignorance and aggressive expansion policies at the causes of the revolt and emphasised the importance of modern scientific education for muslims to advance their conditions. He also emphasised on learning English and was against superstition and evil customs existing in society. In this article, we are going to cover Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s biography, its career, education reforms and legacy in modern education. 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Biography

Sir Syed Ahmed Khad was born on 17 October 1817 in Delhi during the Mughal Empire and belonged to a family closely associated with the Mughal court, his maternal grandfather, Khwaja Fariduddin was a Wazir in Akbar Shah II’s court and while his paternal grandfather had an administrative position under Emperor Alamgir II. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s father, Syed Muhammad Muttaqi was a confidant of Akbar Shah II. Raised in the cultural richness of Mughal Delhi, Sir Syed received both traditional and rational education. He studied the Quran, Persian and Arabic along with mathematics, astronomy and medicine while developing a strong interest in literature, poetry and philosophy. 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s Career and Early Contributions

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan joined East India Company in 1838 for service and also served as a jurist in the small causes court at Bijnor. His service came into highlight during the Revolt of 1857 and he remained loyal to the British and saved many European lives. The mutiny deeply affected him and he convinced himself that Indian Muslims needed modern education to progress. His book was called Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind and it talked about how British policies were one of the reasons for the uprising. This made him a rational critic of colonial governance. 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Educational Reform and Aligarh Movement

After the revolt of 1857, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan changed his focus towards educational and social reforms. He believed that only modern education, blended along with western science and islamic learning could uplift Indian Muslims. In 1863, he founded the Victoria School at Ghazipur and in 1864 he established the Scientific Society to translate western works into Indian languages. His most important contribution was the establishment of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh in 1875 that later became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. The university was an important centre point of the Aligarh Movement that modernised Muslim society through education, social reform and loyalty to the British Crown.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Religious and Intellectual Contributions

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s work reflects on the progressive and reformist interpretation of Islam. During his early years, he leaned towards orthodoxy and was influenced by sufi thought however, over the period of increased exposure to western ideas, he developed a rationalist approach. He pitched for the reinterpretation of the Quran in light of modern science and reason and also tried to reconcile islamic teachings with contemporary knowledge. His works like Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq promoted ethical reforms and rational inquiry among Indian Muslims. 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Literary and Political Works 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s texts were all written in Urdu covering topics from history to mechanics. He wrote books like Athar-ul-Sanadeed, a work about the monuments of Delhi, showing his interest in archaeology. During the time and after the revolt of 1857, he wrote influential books like Tarikh-i-Sarkashi-ye-Bijnor and Loyal Muhammadans of India bridging the gaps between Muslims and the British. His works covered topics like education, cooperation and modernisation as the pathways for Muslim Progress in India. 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Legacy in Modern Education 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan is remembered as the architect of modern Muslim education in India. By setting up Aligarh Movement and establishment of MAO college, he shaped an educated class of Muslims who would engage with both British institutions as well as their own cultural traditions. Most of his students managed to occupy important administrative, academic and political positions in colonial India. He focused on scientific learning, rational interpretation of religion and education of women that left a lasting impact on Indian society. 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Muslim Nationalism

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan preached Hindu-Muslim unity and emphasised separate political identities for Muslims, saying that their social and educational needs required distinct representation. He is also credited as an ideological precursor of the Two-Nation Theory that shaped the Pakistan Movement. His central legacy remains in the domain of education and reform. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s vision was to harmonize tradition with modernity, religion with science, and faith with reason. He laid the foundations of modern education for Muslims in India, creating a cultural and intellectual awakening that transformed society.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan FAQs

Q1: What is Sir Syed Ahmed Khan famous for?

Ans: He is famous as a 19th-century Muslim reformer, educationist, and founder of the Aligarh Movement.

Q2: Who is the father of two nation theory?

Ans: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan is regarded as the father of the two-nation theory.

Q3: Who gave the title of Sir to Syed Ahmed Khan?

Ans: The British Crown knighted him with the title "Sir" in 1888.

Q4: Which college was founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and when?

Ans: He founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh in 1875 (later Aligarh Muslim University in 1920).

Q5: What was the first book of Syed Ahmed Khan?

Ans: His first book was Asar-us-Sanadid (1847), on Delhi’s historical monuments.

Wood’s Dispatch, Objectives, Recommendation, Impact

September 2, 2025
Wood's Dispatch

Wood’s Dispatch was introduced by Sir Charles Wood in 1854. Sir Charles Wood was the president of the Board of Control of the East India Company and he addressed a letter to Lord Dalhousie, then Governor- General of India and proposed a blueprint for education in India. He focused on a three-tier language policy with vernacular languages at the primary level, anglo-vernacular at the secondary stage and English as the medium of higher education. This important document, informally called Wood’s dispatch, is called the “Magna Carta of English Education in India.” In this article, we are going to cover Wood's Dispatch, its objectives, its recommendation and its impact.  

Wood’s Dispatch

The Wood’s Dispatch was also known as the “Magna Carta of English Education in India” and was a significant landmark in shaping modern education. The act placed the responsibility of Indian Education on the company and focused on spreading European Literature, science and philosophy through English while promoting Indian language at the primary level. The Dispatch recommended the creation of a Department of Public Instruction in every province and setting up of a graded school system and introduction of a grant-in-aid system for private institutions. 

While the Dispatch gave a strong push to secondary and higher education and laid the foundation of an organized system, many of its provisions were delayed or implemented in a distorted form. Mass education and vernacular high schools were neglected, and universal literacy remained unrealized. After the 1857 Revolt, education took a backseat as the British Crown focused more on consolidating power than on reform.

Wood’s Dispatch Objectives 

The Wood’s Dispatch was introduced for the purpose of introducing bridging cultures and promoting growth. These objectives include: 

  • To provide western knowledge and cultural ideas to Indians. 
  • To prepare a class of Indians who serve as efficient government officials. 
  • To motivate intellectual and moral growth of Indian youth. 
  • Promotes vocational and practical skills and boosts indigenous industries and markets. 

Wood’s Dispatch Recommendation

The recommendations made by wood’s dispatch helped lay down foundations for modern learning. These recommendations include: 

  • Proposed departments of public instruction in Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjab and North-western provinces. 
  • Focused on mass education and expansion of primary, middle and high schools. 
  • Advocated universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras modeled on the University of London. 
  • Suggested the establishment of faculties for law, civil engineering, Arabic, Sanskrit and Persian. 
  • Introduced the grant-in-aid system to support private education. 
  • Stressed on the importance of dual vernaculars and English in instruction. 
  • Motivated women to seek education and teacher-training institutes in every province. 
  • Proposed a graded system of schools all over the country to provide uniform learning. 

Wood’s Dispatch Impact 

Introduced in 1854, by Charles Wood, the wood’s dispatch had an impact of shaping India’s educational future. This includes: 

  • Universities were established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in 1857. 
  • Provincial education departments were set up. 
  • Bethune School in Calcutta focused on women’s education. 
  • Agricultural and engineering institutes were set up at Pusa(Bihar)n and Roorkee. 
  • British India’s education was increasingly westernised with European faculty heading institutions.

Wood's Dispatch FAQs

Q1: What are the main objectives of Wood's Dispatch?

Ans: To spread Western education, promote Indian languages, expand mass education, train teachers, and create a class of educated Indians for administration.

Q2: What was the Wood's Dispatch 1857?

Ans: It led to the establishment of the first three universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857.

Q3: What was Wood's Despatch 1854 called?

Ans: It was called the “Magna Carta of English Education in India”.

Q4: Why is Wood's Despatch called Magna Carta?

Ans: Because it laid the foundation of a systematic, organized, and comprehensive education policy in India.

Q5: Who founded Wood's Despatch?

Ans: It was authored by Sir Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of the East India Company.

Ottoman Empire, History, Major Ruler, Timeline, Key Facts, Decline

September 2, 2025
Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was established in 1299 by Osman I, who brought together several independent Anatolian states under a single authority. By the mid-14th century, the Ottomans had expanded into former Byzantine lands, steadily building a powerful empire. For more than six centuries, they controlled vast regions across the Middle East and Eastern Europe. The Ottoman Empire eventually came to an end in 1922, paving the way for the modern nation of Turkey.

Ottoman Empire

By the late 13th century, Anatolia, caught between the weakening Byzantine Empire and the Mongol domains saw the rise of several small principalities. These frontier regions were dominated by ghazis, warriors devoted to fighting for Islam, and each principality was ruled by a local prince known as a bey.

Among them, Osman I, a leader of Turkmen nomads, established a principality that would later carry his name: the Ottoman state. What began as a modest frontier domain soon expanded into one of the most powerful empires in history, controlling vast stretches of Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean. The Ottoman Empire sustained for centuries before finally giving way to modern-day Turkey in 1922.

Ottoman Empire History

  • In the mid-11th century, the Seljuk Turks, a nomadic people from Asia who had embraced Sunni Islam, migrated into Persia and surrounding regions before pushing westward into Anatolia.
  • Their victory over the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 opened the door for Turkic tribes to settle in the empire’s southeastern lands.
  • By the late 13th century, Anatolia had fragmented into numerous small principalities known as beyliks. Though nominally independent, these states often fought one another for dominance. 
  • One of their leaders, Osman I (1299-1326), a chieftain of Bithynia near the Sea of Marmara, began pressing against Byzantine frontiers. 
  • He expanded his territory through persistent campaigns and established Prusa (modern Bursa) as his stronghold.
  • Osman’s successors carried his vision forward, gradually conquering Byzantine lands in Anatolia and extending into southeastern Europe. 
  • By the end of the 14th century, the Ottomans had already made their presence felt in the Balkans. 
  • The turning point came in 1453, when Mehmed II captured Constantinople, transforming it into the Ottoman capital. 
  • From there, the empire expanded rapidly, bringing regions such as Serbia, Greece, and Bosnia under its influence.

Ottoman Empire Timeline

  • 1299 - Osman I declares independence from the Seljuk Sultan and establishes the foundation of the Ottoman Empire.
  • 1389 - Large parts of the Balkan Peninsula, including Serbia, fall under Ottoman control.
  • 1453 - Sultan Mehmed II captures Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire and making the city the Ottoman capital.
  • 1517 - The Ottomans conquer Egypt and annex it into their empire.
  • 1520 - Suleiman the Magnificent ascends the throne, ushering in the empire’s golden age.
  • 1529 - First Ottoman Siege of Vienna.
  • 1533 - Ottoman forces expand eastward, conquering Iraq.
  • 1551 - Libya is brought under Ottoman rule.
  • 1566 - Death of Suleiman the Magnificent.
  • 1569 - A massive fire devastates Istanbul, destroying nearly 36,000 houses.
  • 1683 - The Ottomans suffer defeat at the Second Siege of Vienna, marking the start of the empire’s long decline.
  • 1699 - Treaty of Karlowitz: the Ottomans lose Hungary and other territories to Austria.
  • 1718-1730 - The Tulip Period, a rare era of peace, cultural growth, and prosperity.
  • 1821 - The Greek War of Independence begins, challenging Ottoman control in Europe.
  • 1914 - The Ottoman Empire enters World War I on the side of the Central Powers.
  • 1922 - The Ottoman Empire is officially dissolved, replaced by the Republic of Turkey.

Ottoman Empire Religion

The Ottoman Empire Religion was Islam, but the empire did not force its conquered people to convert. Instead, Christians and Jews were allowed to continue practicing their faith without persecution. 

This policy of tolerance helped reduce resistance among the conquered populations and played a key role in the empire’s stability and longevity.

Ottoman Empire Key Facts

  • The Sultan resided in the Topkapi Palace, Istanbul, with several wives.
  • Janissaries were the elite soldiers of the Sultan, selected at a young age from Christian families of the Balkan states.
  • Though treated as slaves, Janissaries received regular salaries and allowances.
  • The Tulip Period marked a time of peace and prosperity when art and culture flourished in the Ottoman Empire.
  • Tulips symbolized perfection and beauty in Ottoman culture.
  • Documents from Bursa, the oldest economic source of the Empire, highlight commercial relations between India and the Ottoman Empire.
  • From the late 15th century, Sultan Mehmed II played a role in making the empire an outlet for Indian textiles.

Ottoman Empire Major Ruler

The Ottoman Empire Major Ruler always came from the Ottoman Dynasty (House of Osman). A total of 36 sultans ruled the empire. Their reign lasted from 1299 to 1922. The sultans are recorded in chronological order in the historical table.

Ottoman Empire Major Ruler

Ottoman Ruler Name

Tenure

Brief Description

Osman Gazi or Osman I

1299-1324 or 1326

Declared independence from the Anatolian Seljuk Empire in 1299.

Reigned until his death.

Orhan Gazi

1326-1362

Son of Osman I

Murad I or Sultan-i Azam

1362-1389

The most exalted sultan.

Reigned until his death.

On June 15, 1389, Killed on the battlefield at the battle of Kosovo.

Yildirim Bayazid I

1389-1402

Captured on the battlefield at the battle of Ankara and died in captivity in Aksehir on 8 March 1403).

Celebi Mehmet I

1413-1421

Note: Ottoman Empire Interregnum (From 20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413).

Bowstring maker for his support.

Reigned until his death.

Murad II

First reign- 1421-1444

Abdicated of his own free will in favour of his son Faith Mehmet II.

Fatih Mehmed II

First reign- 1444-1446

Surrendered the throne to his father due to increasing threats from Janissaries.

Murad II

Second reign- 1446-1451

Later, the following Janissary rebellion was forced to return the throne.

Reigned until his death.

Mehmed II

Second reign- 1451-1481

Kayser-i-rum (Caesar of the Roman Empire).

Conquered Constantinople in 1453.

Reigned until his death.

Bayezid II

1481-1512

Died near Didymoteicho on 26 May 1512.

Yavuz Selim I

1512-1520

Known as Hadim-ul Haramain-al-Sharifain (Servant of Mecca and Medina).

Reigned until his death.

Suleiman the magnificent or Suleiman I

1520-1566

Most powerful Ottoman Sultan.

Codified a central legal system for the Ottoman state.

Expanded both territory (Into Mecca-Medina, Yemen and took Persian territory) and revenue.

Built up Constantinople as the Ottoman empire’s capital.

Selim II

1566-1574

Son of Suleiman I.

His reign was considered a Less fortune against Russia.

In 1572, Before his death, the Ottomans regained control of Tunisia from Spain.

Murad III

1574-1595

His reign saw fighting with the Habsburg monarchy and some exhausting wars with the Safavids empire.

Reigned until his death.

Mehmed III

1595-1603

His reign saw the Ottoman forces defeat the Habsburgs and Transylvanians forces in the decisive battle of Keresztes in 1596.

He was buried in Hagia Sophia Mosque (Originally a Church, Present day- Turkey).

Ahmed I

1603-1617

Constructed the Blue Mosque (Present day- Istanbul, Turkey).

He led the wars against Safavid Persia.

Safavid offered a peace treaty

(Treaty of Nasuh Pasha in 1612) agreed to end the war.

Strengthened the Ottomans trade- signed a trade agreement with the Dutch republic.

Mustafa I

First reign- 1617-1618

Dismissed due to his non-syndromic mental retardation in favour of his young nephew Osman II.

Osman II

1618-1622

Dismissed from the throne in a Janissary riot on 19 May 1622.

Then, He was murdered on 20 May 1622 by the Grand Vizier Kara Davud Pasha.

Mustafa I

Second reign- 1622-1623

Return to the throne after the assassination of his nephew Osman II.

Later, Dismissed from the throne due to his poor mental health and confined until his death.

Murad IV

1623-1640

Baghdad was conquered by him.

Reigned until his death.

Ibrahim

1640-1648

The Conqueror of Crete.

Dismissed on 8 Aug 1648 in a coup led by the Sheikh ul-Islam.

Mehmed IV

1648-1687

Dismissed on 8 Nov 1687 following the Ottoman defeat at the second battle of Mohacs.

Suleiman II

1687-1691

Relations with the Mughal Empire, India:

In 1688, Sultan Suleiman II made an urgent request for assistance from the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb against the Austrians during the Ottoman–Habsburg War.

Then, the Mughals were heavily engaged in the Deccan wars against the Marathas.

Ahmed II

1691-1695

He saw continued wars with the Holy League (Poland, Austria and Vence).

His reigned Ottomans suffered substantial territorial losses in Hungary.

Mustafa II

1695-1703

Dismissed on 22 Aug 1703 by a Janissary uprising known as the Edirne event.

Ahmed III

1703-1730

Dismissed as a result of the Janissary rebellion led by Patrona Halil.

Mahmud I

1730-1754

He assumed the throne after the Patrona Halil rebellion in 1730 and maintained good relations with the Safavid and Mughal empires.

Reigned until his death.

Osman III

1754-1757

25th Ottoman Sultan& 90th of the Islamic caliph.

He lived most of his life as a prisoner and succeeded to the throne at the age of 56.

Mustafa III

1757-1774

By removing Osman III from the throne, He became the next Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

His reign saw the Russo-Turkish wars of 1768-1774.

Later, He was removed from the throne by his brother- Abdulhamid I.

Abdulhamid I

1774-1789

He tried to renovate the military system.

He installed new artillery troops.

Reigned until his death.

Selim III

1789-1807

Dismissed as a result of the Janissary revolt led by Kabakci Mustafa against his reforms.

Assassinated in Istanbul on 28 July 1808 at the behest of Mustafa IV.

Mustafa IV

1807-1808

Dismissed in an insurrection led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha.

Executed in Istanbul by order of Sultan Mahmud II.

Mahmud II

1808-1839

Modernization of the Ottoman empire.

In 1826, The Janissaries were dissolved as a result of an auspicious event.

Abdulmejid I

1839-1861

Proclaimed the Hatt-i-Sharif (Imperial Edict).

Launched the Tanzimat period of reforms at the behest of reformist Grand Vizier Great Mustafa Rashid Pasha.

Abdulaziz I

1861-1876

Deposed by his ministers.

Mehmed Murad V

Between May – Aug 1876

Dismissed due to his efforts to implement democratic reforms in the empire.

Abdulhamid II

1876-1909

He ruled the Ottomans for 33 years (Known as the Hamidian Era).

Mehmed V

1909-1918

Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.

Mehmed VI

1918-1922

The Sultanate was abolished.

Left Istanbul in Nov 1922.

Died in exile in Sanremo, Italy.

Abdulmejid II

1922-1924

Republican Caliphate.

Exiled after the abolition of the caliphate post.

Ottoman Empire Expansion

  • The Ottoman Empire was founded in 1299 after the fall of the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).
  • By the mid-15th century, the empire expanded rapidly, especially after the conquest of Constantinople.
  • Success was largely due to an efficient army and the elite Janissaries.
  • The Janissaries were Christian boys taken from Balkan regions (Serbia, Albania, Macedonia, Slovenia, etc.), converted to Islam, and trained as soldiers or administrators.
  • They became the Sultan’s personal bodyguards, administrators, and elite troops.
  • The Ottomans were among the first gunpowder empires, using weapons like the harquebus.
  • At its peak, the Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest-lasting empires in history.
  • The empire spanned three continents:
    • Southeast Europe (Balkans)
    • Central Asia, Anatolia, and Arabia
    • North Africa

Ottoman Empire Decline

In the 1600s, the Ottoman Empire started losing its military strength and economic dominance in Europe. Over the next century, the empire’s decline deepened, with major territories slipping from its control. In 1830, Greece successfully rebelled and gained independence. Later, the Congress of Berlin in 1878 recognized the independence of Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania.

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 dealt another heavy blow, stripping the Ottomans of nearly all their remaining European lands. By the time World War I began in 1914, the empire was already fragile and in decline. The Ottomans joined the war on the side of the Central Powers, but their defeat in October 1918 sealed their fate.

In 1922, the Ottoman Empire was officially abolished, along with the title of Sultan. A year later, on October 29, 1923, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a military officer and visionary leader, proclaimed the Republic of Turkey, marking the final end of the Ottoman era and the birth of modern Turkey.

Ottoman Empire FAQs

Q1: Who destroyed the Ottoman Empire?

Ans: The Ottoman Empire collapsed after World War I, mainly due to Allied powers’ defeat of the Central Powers and internal nationalist uprisings.

Q2: What is the Ottoman Empire called today?

Ans: The modern Republic of Turkey, established in 1923 under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, is considered the successor state of the former Ottoman Empire.

Q3: Who finally defeated the Ottoman Empire?

Ans: The Ottoman Empire was finally defeated in World War I by the Allied powers, followed by Turkish nationalists abolishing the Sultanate in 1922.

Q4: Which country is the Ottoman Empire?

Ans: The Ottoman Empire’s core was present-day Turkey, but at its height, it spanned Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa.

Q5: What was the biggest empire in history?

Ans: The British Empire was the largest in history, covering about 35 million square kilometers and ruling over one-fourth of the world’s population.

Daily Editorial Analysis 2 September 2025

September 2, 2025
Daily Editorial Analysis

The Rise and Risks of Health Insurance in India 

Context

  • The idea of Universal Health Care (UHC) has long been central to the vision of human development in India.
  • The gap between aspiration and reality has led to increasing reliance on health insurance schemes as a perceived route to UHC.
  • Yet, this approach, dominated by the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) and various State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs), raises significant concerns about equity, efficiency, and sustainability.

The Expansion of Health Insurance in India

  • In recent years, health insurance has emerged as the primary strategy for expanding access to health care in India.
  • PMJAY, launched in 2018 under Ayushman Bharat, and its state-level counterparts offer annual coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per household, focusing exclusively on in-patient hospitalisation.
  • By 2023–24, PMJAY covered nearly 58.8 crore individuals with an annual budget of ₹12,000 crore, while SHIPs together accounted for another ₹16,000 crore.
  • Despite forming only a fraction of India’s total health expenditure, these schemes have grown rapidly, with budgets expanding by up to 25% annually in some states.
  • While insurance has provided some relief to patients facing overcrowded or underperforming public facilities, its structural weaknesses threaten to deepen the fault lines of India’s health-care system.

Structural Weaknesses of the Insurance Model

  • The Idea of Profiteering

    • One of the most serious problems with insurance-led health care is the promotion of for-profit medicine.
    • Evidence shows that about two-thirds of the PMJAY budget flows to private hospitals, many of which operate with minimal regulation.
    • Instead of correcting the dominance of profit-seeking providers, health insurance reinforces it.
    • This commercialisation is particularly troubling because the pursuit of profit often conflicts with patient welfare and leads to unnecessary or inflated treatments.

  • Distortion of Health Priorities

    • Insurance schemes disproportionately channel resources toward hospitalisation and tertiary care, while neglecting primary and outpatient services.
    • For a country where many citizens still struggle with basic access to preventive and community-level care, this imbalance risks worsening inefficiency and inequity.
    • The inclusion of all elderly citizens in PMJAY, while seemingly progressive, could further skew expenditure toward costly hospital care at the expense of essential services.

  • Utilisation Challenges

    • Although official figures claim coverage for nearly 80% of the population, surveys show that only about one-third of insured patients successfully use their benefits.
    • Lack of awareness, bureaucratic hurdles, and discouragement by hospitals reduce the practical impact of insurance.
    • Consequently, out-of-pocket spending remains high, undermining the schemes’ core purpose of financial protection.

Some Other Problematic Aspects of Targeted Health Insurance

  • Inequities and Discrimination

    • Targeted health insurance also creates new forms of inequality.
    • Private hospitals often prefer uninsured patients who can be charged higher fees, while public hospitals favour insured patients who bring additional revenue.
    • This results in discriminatory treatment, with patients pressured to enrol on the spot or denied services altogether.
    • Even among the insured, marginalised groups face the greatest obstacles in accessing benefits, reproducing existing social disparities in health outcomes.

  • Administrative and Ethical Failures

    • The implementation of health insurance schemes has been plagued by financial and ethical challenges.
    • Hospitals frequently complain of delayed payments, with pending dues under PMJAY alone exceeding ₹12,000 crore, more than the scheme’s annual budget.
    • This has led many hospitals to suspend services or withdraw from the programme altogether.
    • Additionally, widespread fraud and corruption, from unnecessary procedures to outright denial of eligible treatments, compromise both patient safety and public trust.
    • Weak monitoring and the lack of transparent audit reports further exacerbate these problems, leaving irregularities unchecked.

The Deeper Crisis: Underinvestment in Public Health

  • Ultimately, the reliance on insurance schemes reflects a deeper structural problem: chronic underinvestment in India’s public health system.
  • At just 1.3% of GDP in 2022, India’s public health spending is among the lowest in the world, far below the global average of 6.1%.
  • No country has achieved genuine UHC without strong public health infrastructure, and India’s continued neglect of this sector undermines any insurance-led strategy.
  • Some states have taken steps to strengthen public services, with positive outcomes, but progress remains uneven and insufficient to meet national needs.

Conclusion

  • Health insurance, as currently implemented in India, functions more as a temporary painkiller than as a cure for the systemic ills of the health sector.
  • While schemes like PMJAY and SHIPs offer some relief to patients, they cannot substitute for a robust and accessible public health system.
  • The over-reliance on profit-driven private providers, the neglect of primary care, barriers to utilisation, and rampant inefficiencies all highlight the inadequacy of an insurance-centric approach.
  • For India to move meaningfully toward UHC, it must confront the underlying deficit in public health investment and reorient its strategy toward equitable, non-profit, and preventive care.

The Rise and Risks of Health Insurance in India FAQs

Q1. What was the Bhore Committee’s vision of Universal Health Care (UHC)?
Ans. The Bhore Committee envisioned UHC as access to quality health care for all citizens, irrespective of their ability to pay.

Q2. How does PMJAY primarily support patients?
Ans. PMJAY provides financial cover for hospitalisation by allowing patients to seek treatment from empanelled public and private hospitals.

Q3. Why is India’s reliance on health insurance problematic?
Ans. India’s reliance on health insurance is problematic because it promotes profit-driven private care, neglects primary services, and fails to reduce out-of-pocket spending effectively.

Q4. What is a major administrative issue faced by PMJAY?
Ans. A major issue is the long delay in payments to hospitals, with dues often exceeding the scheme’s annual budget.

Q5. What must India prioritise to achieve genuine UHC?
Ans. India must prioritise greater public investment in health infrastructure, especially in preventive and primary care, to achieve genuine UHC.

Source: The Hindu

Noise Pollution is Rising but Policy is Falling Silent 

Context

  • Urban noise pollution has emerged as one of the most underestimated public health and environmental challenges of our time.
  • Across Indian cities, sound levels consistently exceed permissible limits, especially in sensitive areas such as schools, hospitals, and residential neighbourhoods.
  • Far from being a mere inconvenience, this unchecked rise in decibel levels strikes at the heart of India’s constitutional promises of peace, dignity, and the right to life.
  • While regulatory frameworks exist, systemic apathy, institutional fragmentation, and cultural normalisation of noise have created a crisis that remains largely invisible and dangerously neglected.

Monitoring without Accountability

  • In 2011, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) launched the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN) with the vision of creating a real-time noise monitoring system.
  • More than a decade later, however, the initiative remains a passive data repository rather than an engine for reform.
  • Sensor misplacement, often installed 25–30 feet high in contravention of CPCB guidelines, undermines the reliability of data, and even the limited data collected rarely translates into enforcement.
  • By contrast, Europe has used noise-induced health statistics to redesign zoning laws, impose speed regulations, and estimate an annual economic cost of €100 billion attributable to urban noise.
  • India, in comparison, has failed to translate monitoring into meaningful governance, leaving noise management politically and administratively inert.

Constitutional and Legal Neglect

  • The neglect of noise regulation is not simply environmental; it verges on constitutional dereliction.
  • Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life with dignity, encompassing both mental and environmental well-being, while Article 48A mandates proactive environmental protection.
  • Yet, in so-called silence zones, hospitals and schools are routinely engulfed in noise that exceeds World Health Organization (WHO) safe limits of 50 dB(A) by day and 40 dB(A) by night.
  • In practice, Indian cities record levels as high as 65–70 dB(A).
  • The Supreme Court has reaffirmed that noise pollution constitutes a violation of fundamental rights, notably in its 2024 reference to the landmark Noise Pollution (V), In Re case.
  • However, enforcement of the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, remains largely symbolic.

Ecological Consequences, Civic Fatigue, and the Politics of Silence

  • Ecological Consequences

    • The costs of noise pollution extend beyond human well-being.
    • A 2025 study by the University of Auckland revealed that just one night of urban noise and artificial light disrupted the sleep and song patterns, reducing both vocal complexity and frequency.
    • This disruption in avian communication is not merely an ecological curiosity but a signal of a deeper environmental breakdown: biodiversity itself is being robbed of its voice.
    • Such disruptions foreshadow cascading ecological effects, from altered species interactions to diminished urban biodiversity.

  • Civic Fatigue and the Politics of Silence

    • Urban noise pollution is not only a technical issue but also a deeply political and cultural one.
    • Its invisibility as a pollutant, unlike smog or garbage, noise leaves no physical residue, contributes to civic fatigue and apathy.
    • Honking, drilling, and late-night construction have been normalised as unavoidable irritants. Public outrage is muted, and institutional coordination is lacking.
    • Municipal authorities, traffic police, and pollution control boards function in silos, with little inter-agency collaboration.
    • The absence of a national acoustic policy comparable to air quality standards perpetuates the problem.

Pathways to Reform

  • Decentralising noise monitoring: Local bodies must be empowered with real-time access to noise data and corresponding enforcement authority.
  • Linking data to enforcement: Monitoring systems must be coupled with penalties for violations, construction restrictions, and zoning compliance.
  • Institutionalising public awareness: Beyond symbolic events such as “No Honking Day,” long-term behavioural campaigns must be embedded in schools, driver training, and civic spaces.
  • Integrating acoustic resilience into urban planning: Cities must be designed not only for expansion and mobility but also for sonic civility, through zoning reforms, soundproofing infrastructure, and noise-sensitive construction guidelines.

Conclusion

  • Urban noise pollution in India represents a profound failure of governance, cultural awareness, and constitutional responsibility.
  • It silently erodes public health, disrupts ecological systems, and undermines civic dignity.
  • The crisis cannot be solved through technology or law alone; it demands a culture of sonic empathy that redefines silence as an active form of care.
  • Unless India adopts a rights-based framework that integrates data, enforcement, and civic education, its urban environments will remain smart only in name, while unliveable in sound.

Noise Pollution is Rising but Policy is Falling Silent FAQs

Q1. What makes urban noise pollution in India a public health crisis?
Ans. Urban noise pollution exceeds safe limits in most cities, disturbing mental health, sleep, and overall well-being, especially for vulnerable groups like children and the elderly.

Q2. Why has the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN) failed to deliver results?
Ans. The NANMN has become a passive data repository with poorly placed sensors and little connection between monitoring and enforcement.

Q3. How does noise pollution affect ecology?
Ans. Noise disrupts the communication, sleep, and song patterns of birds such as mynas, signaling a broader breakdown in ecological systems.

Q4. What constitutional rights are threatened by unchecked noise pollution?
Ans. Noise pollution undermines Article 21, which guarantees the right to life with dignity, and Article 48A, which mandates environmental protection.

Q5. What key reforms are suggested to tackle urban noise pollution?
Ans. The analysis suggests decentralising monitoring, linking data to enforcement, raising public awareness, and embedding acoustic resilience into urban planning.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 2 September 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Mahadev Govind Ranade, Background, Ideology, Contribution

September 2, 2025
Mahadev Govind Ranade

Mahadev Govind Ranade, born in 1842 in Nashik, Maharashtra, was a renowned nationalist, jurist, scholar, and one of the leading social reformers of 19th-century India. Often remembered as the “Socrates of Maharashtra,” Ranade dedicated his life to promoting progressive ideas such as education, social justice, and economic reform. Deeply influenced by the reformist ideals of the Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Brahmo Samaj, he worked tirelessly to challenge regressive practices and uplift Indian society. 

He co-founded the Deccan Educational Society, advocated the establishment of the Indian National Congress, and served with distinction as a judge of the Bombay High Court. His contributions to education, social reform, and nation-building make him an important figure for understanding India’s socio-political awakening under colonial rule.

Mahadev Govind Ranade Background

Mahadev Govind Ranade was born on January 18, 1842, into a middle-class Maharashtrian family in Niphad, Nashik. He began his education at a Marathi school in Kolhapur before moving to an English-medium institution. At the age of 14, he joined Elphinstone College in Bombay and later became part of the first batch of students at the University of Bombay. He earned his BA in 1862 and completed his LLB in 1866.

Ranade played a key role in introducing vernacular languages into the university curriculum. His judicial career began with his appointment as Presidency Magistrate of the Bombay Small Causes Court in 1871, and in 1893 he rose to the position of Judge at the Bombay High Court. Alongside his legal career, he also served as a history professor at Elphinstone College, where his deep interest in Maratha history led him to write the seminal work Rise of Maratha Power in 1900.

Beyond academics and law, Ranade was a reformer and a nationalist. He was instrumental in the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885, contributing significantly to the political awakening of modern India.

Mahadev Govind Ranade Ideology

  • Mahadev Govind Ranade reformist ideas were shaped by Western thought and the colonial context.
  • He worked in spheres like religious reform, public education, and family reform, often criticizing traditional Indian customs.
  • He believed Hinduism was overly tied to rituals and duties, neglecting deeper spiritual values.
  • Sought to emphasize spiritual growth over ritual practices, drawing inspiration from reformed Christianity, which he saw as more spiritually centered.
  • Viewed many Indian practices as obstacles to progress and worked to reshape them in line with rational and ethical ideals.
  • Advocated indigenous products, balancing Western influence with a nationalist economic vision.

Mahadev Govind Ranade Contributions

  • Mahadev Govind Ranade believed Hinduism focused excessively on rituals and social duties. He sought to infuse it with spiritual values, inspired by his study of Western thought and reformed Christianity.
  • He worked actively for public education, especially advocating reforms within the Indian family system, including women’s education and widow remarriage.
  • Deeply shaped by colonial exposure, he often compared Indian customs with Western practices, favoring reform in line with modern rational ideals.
  • He envisioned an Indian society grounded in higher spiritual values rather than mechanical traditions.
  • Mahadev Govind Ranade strongly supported the Swadeshi movement, urging the use of indigenous products as a path to self-reliance.

Mahadev Govind Ranade on Women Empowerment

  • Mahadev Govind Ranade's reformist vision aimed to humanize and equalize Indian society, with women at the core of his efforts.
  • He actively opposed the purdah system, advocating for women’s dignity, mobility, and participation in public life.
  • In 1861, while still a teenager, Ranade co-founded the Widow Marriage Association to encourage Hindu widow remarriages.
  • This initiative directly questioned rigid Hindu customs that banned widow remarriage.
  • His association also acted as native collaborators (compradors) in supporting the colonial government’s legal project to pass widow remarriage laws.

Mahadev Govind Ranade FAQs

Q1: What is Ranade best known for?

Ans: Mahadev Govind Ranade is best known as a social reformer, judge, and one of the founding members of the Indian National Congress. He worked for widow remarriage, women’s education, removal of caste restrictions, and economic reforms.

Q2: Which book was written by M.G. Ranade?

Ans: His most notable work is Rise of the Maratha Power (1900), which studied the history and political influence of the Marathas. He also wrote extensively on economics, religion, and social reforms.

Q3: What is the caste of Ranade?

Ans: M.G. Ranade belonged to the Chitpavan Brahmin community of Maharashtra.

Q4: Which organization was founded by M.G. Ranade?

Ans: He co-founded the Indian National Social Conference (1887), which worked alongside the Indian National Congress to promote social reform.

Q5: Who is called Mahadev Govind Ranade?

Ans: Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842-1901) was a renowned Indian social reformer, scholar, historian, and judge of the Bombay High Court, often remembered as one of the leading figures of India’s 19th-century reform movement.

Multi-Lane Free Flow (MLFF) Tolling System

September 2, 2025
Multi-Lane Free Flow (MLFF) Tolling System

Multi-Lane Free Flow (MLFF) Tolling System Latest News

Recently, the Indian Highways Management Company Limited (IHMCL), a company promoted by NHAI has signed an agreement with ICICI Bank to implement country’s first comprehensive Multi-Lane Free Flow (MLFF) tolling system at Choryasi Fee Plaza in Gujarat on NH-48. 

About Multi-Lane Free Flow (MLFF) Tolling System

  • It is a barrier-less tolling system that enables transactions through reading of FASTag and Vehicle Registration Number (VRN) by High performance RFID Readers and ANPR Cameras.

Significance Multi-Lane Free Flow (MLFF) Tolling System

  • It enables seamless toll collection without stopping vehicles at fee plazas, reducing congestion and travel time leading to enhanced fuel efficiency and lowering emissions.
  • Implementation of MLFF will also contribute towards improving toll revenue collection and creating a smarter, faster and more efficient National Highway network across the country.

Key Facts about NHAI

  • It is India’s premier highway infrastructure creator entrusted with developing, maintaining, and managing National Highways.
  • It is a statutory body under the administrative control of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
  • It was constituted under National Highways Authority of India Act, 1998 and made operational in February 1995.
  • Composition: It consists of a full time Chairman, and not more than five full time Members and four part time Members who are appointed by the Central Government.
  • The part time Members are the Secretary (RT&H), Secretary (Expenditure), Secretary (Planning) and DG (RD) & SS.

Source: PIB

Multi-Lane Free Flow (MLFF) Tolling System FAQs

Q1: What is the purpose of MLFF?

Ans: The Multi-Lane-Free-Flow (MLFF) system is an electronic tolling technology that enables smooth traffic flow.

Q2: What do you mean by RFID technology?

Ans: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology uses radio waves to identify people or objects.

Mauritania

September 2, 2025
Mauritania

Mauritania Latest News

A migrant boat sank off Mauritania’s coast earlier recently, leaving at least 49 people dead and around 100 missing.

About Mauritania

  • It is a country in northwest Africa.
  • It occupies an area of 1,030,000 sq. km.
  • It is a country of the Sahel region (a belt across Africa between the arid Sahara to the north and the humid savannas to the south).
  • It borders four other nations: West Sahara, Senegal, Algeria, and Mali. The Atlantic Ocean lies to the west.
  • Approximately 90% of its landmass is located within the Sahara Desert.
  • The most prominent feature of this region is the Guelb er Richat, also known as the Eye of the Sahara, which is a deeply eroded dome consisting of a variety of intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
  • The Senegal River is the most important waterway in the country. 
  • People: 
    • Most of the people are Moors. 
    • These are the descendants of Arabs and Berbers (the original inhabitants of North Africa). 
  • Much of the population clings to the coastal cities or by the Senegal River in the south. 
  • Mauritania became independent from France in 1960.
  • In 1981, Mauritania became the last country in the world to outlaw slavery.
  • Capital: Nouakchott 
  • Language: 
    • The main language is Arabic. 
    • The Fulani, Soninke, Wolof, and French languages are also common. 
  • Islam is the national religion.
  • Economy:
    • Mauritania has an abundance of natural resources, including iron ore, gold, copper, gypsum, and phosphate. 
    • Extractive commodities make up 75 percent of Mauritania's total exports (exploration for oil is ongoing), with fishing making up another 20 percent.
    • The nation's coastal waters are said to be among the richest fishing areas in the world.

Source: TOI

Mauritania FAQs

Q1: Mauritania is located in which part of Africa?

Ans: Northwest Africa

Q2: Mauritania shares its borders which countries?

Ans: West Sahara, Senegal, Algeria, and Mali

Q3: Which natural feature of Mauritania is also known as the “Eye of the Sahara”?

Ans: Guelb er Richat

Q4: Mauritania gained independence from which colonial power in 1960?

Ans: France

Clopidogrel

September 2, 2025
Clopidogrel

Clopidogrel Latest News

Doctors now believe that clopidogrel, a well-known antiplatelet medication, could be more effective than aspirin for long-term prevention of heart attacks—especially in those at high risk. 

About Clopidogrel

  • Clopidogrel is a medication that belongs to the class of antiplatelet agents that prevent blood clots from forming. 
  • It is commonly prescribed to reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes in people and those with peripheral arterial disease or unstable angina.
  • Clopidogrel works by blocking the action of platelets, which are blood cells that play a key role in forming blood clots, to reduce the risk of serious cardiovascular events.
  • Some of the common uses of Clopidogrel include:
    • Preventing heart attacks
    • Preventing strokes
    • Treating peripheral artery disease
    • Preventing blood clots after certain medical procedures
    • Preventing blood clots in patients with atrial fibrillation.
  • Clopidogrel is usually taken orally, with or without food. 
  • However, the dosage and frequency of the medication will depend on the individual's medical condition, age, and response to treatment.
  • Clopidogrel is typically taken once daily, preferably at the same time each day, to maintain consistent levels of the medication in the body.

Source: ITV

Clopidogrel FAQs

Q1: Clopidogrel belongs to which class of drugs?

Ans: Antiplatelet agents

Q2: What is the primary function of Clopidogrel?

Ans: Preventing blood clot formation.

Q3: Which cells does Clopidogrel primarily act upon?

Ans: Platelets

Q4: Clopidogrel is usually administered in which form?

Ans: Clopidogrel is usually taken orally, with or without food.

Air Quality Life Index (AQLI)

September 2, 2025
Air Quality Life Index

Air Quality Life Index Latest News

Air pollution has emerged as India’s most severe health threat, reducing the country’s average life expectancy by 3.5 years, according to the Air Quality Life Index (AQLI) 2025 report .

About Air Quality Life Index

  • It measures particulate air pollution's impact on life expectancy.
  • Developed by Michael Greenstone and Energy Policy Institute (EPIC) at the University of Chicago, the AQLI quantifies pollution's effects.
  • The AQLI combines research on long-term air pollution exposure with global particulate pollution measurements.
  • It provides insight into the true cost of air pollution on communities worldwide.

Highlights of the Air Quality Life Index 2025 Report

  • Air pollution has emerged as India’s most severe health threat, reducing the country’s average life expectancy by 3.5 years.
  • Toxic air robs Indians of nearly twice as many years as childhood and maternal malnutrition and more than five times the impact of unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing.
  • All 1.4 billion Indians live in areas where pollution levels exceed the World Health Organization’s (WHO’s) safe limit of 5 µg/m³ for PM2.5. 
  • The northern belt is still the world’s most polluted zone, with 544.4 million people (38.9 percent of India’s population) living under severe air pollution.
  • Delhi-NCR is the worst hit, with residents facing a loss of 8.2 years in life expectancy (based on WHO’s standard). 
    • Bihar: 5.6 years lost 
    • Haryana: 5.3 years lost 
    • Uttar Pradesh: 5 years lost
  • Even by India’s weaker PM2.5 standard of 40 µg/m³, Delhi-NCR residents would still lose 4.74 years of life expectancy.
  • Shockingly, the report notes that 46 percent of Indians live in areas that exceed even India’s own PM2.5 standards.
  • If pollution levels were reduced to meet this national benchmark, Indians could gain an average of 1.5 years of life expectancy. 
  • Meeting WHO’s stricter 5 µg/m³ guideline could add up to 9.4 months even in cleaner regions.
  • The AQLI report underlines that South Asia is the most polluted region globally, with PM2.5 concentrations rising 2.8 percent in 2023 after a brief dip in 2022.
    • Air pollution:
      • Cuts 3 years off average life expectancy across the region.
      • Reduces life by more than 8 years in the most affected zones

Source: BS

Air Quality Life Index FAQs

Q1: The Air Quality Life Index (AQLI) was developed by which institution?

Ans: Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago (EPIC)

Q2: Who led the development of the Air Quality Life Index (AQLI)?

Ans: Michael Greenstone

Q3: According to the Air Quality Life Index (AQLI) 2025 Report, by how many years has India’s average life expectancy been reduced due to air pollution?

Ans: 3.5 years

Q4: Residents of Delhi-NCR are projected to lose how many years of life expectancy due to air pollution (based on WHO standards)?

Ans: 8.2 years

Q5: What percentage of Indians live in areas that exceed India’s own PM2.5 standards (40 µg/m³)?

Ans: 46%

Swarnamukhi River

September 2, 2025
Swarnamukhi River

Swarnamukhi River Latest News

The Tirupati Urban Development Authority (TUDA) recently announced Operation SWARNA, a massive plan to rescue the River Swarnamukhi from the clutches of land grabbers, revive its flow area and rejuvenate it to ensure sustenance.

About Swarnamukhi River

  • It is a river in Andhra Pradesh.
  • It is an east-flowing river basin having a small catchment area of 3,225 sq.km.
  • Course: 
    • It rises at an elevation of 300 m in the Eastern Ghat ranges near Pakala village in the Chittur district of Andhra Pradesh.
    • It runs generally in the northeastern direction passing through the famous Tirupati hills before joining into the Bay of Bengal. 
    • Its total length is 130 km. 
  • It flows through the sacred regions of Tirumala and Srikalahasti, where notable Hindu temples like the Srikalahasteeswara Temple are located.
  • Unlike larger river systems, the Swarnamukhi is independent, meaning it does not join or receive water from major river networks. Its flow is heavily dependent on rainfall, particularly in its upper catchment.
  • The average annual rainfall in the Swarnamukhi basin decreases from 1270 mm at the eastern extremity of the basin to 762 mm at the western extremity.
  • Its main tributary is the Kalyani River, across which the Kalyani Dam was constructed in 1977.

Source: TH

Swarnamukhi River FAQs

Q1: The Swarnamukhi River is located in which Indian state?

Ans: Andhra Pradesh

Q2: What is the total length of the Swarnamukhi River?

Ans: 130 km

Q3: The Swarnamukhi River originates from which mountain ranges?

Ans: Eastern Ghats

Q4: Into which water body does the Swarnamukhi River finally drain?

Ans: Bay of Bengal

Typhon Missile System

September 2, 2025
Typhon Missile System

Typhon Missile System Latest News

A joint U.S. and Japanese military exercise will see the temporary deployment of the “Typhon” intermediate-range missile in Japan, Japanese and U.S. officials said recently.

About Typhon Missile System

  • Typhon, also called the Mid-Range Capability (MRC), is a surface-to-surface missile system.
  • Manufactured by U.S. firm Lockheed Martin, the Typhon Weapon System leverages a modular design that allows it to fire various missile types.
  • It is equipped to launch SM-6 and Tomahawk cruise missiles.
    • The SM-6 missile provides engagement ranges beyond 320 kilometers, while the Tomahawk cruise missile offers deep-strike capability out to 1,500 kilometers.
  • Typhon is containerized, road-mobile, and highly survivable, enabling U.S. forces to disperse precision-strike assets across allied territory and quickly target both land and maritime threats in contested environments. 
  • The system's dual capability makes it particularly effective for both sea denial missions and precision land attacks. 
  • A full Typhon Weapon System battery comprises four launchers, a command post, and reload and support vehicles, all on trailers.

Source: TP

Typhon Missile System FAQs

Q1: Which company manufactures the Typhon Weapon System?

Ans: U.S. firm Lockheed Martin

Q2: Which missiles can the Typhon system launch?

Ans: It is equipped to launch SM-6 and Tomahawk cruise missiles.

Q3: What is the approximate engagement range of the SM-6 missile launched from Typhon?

Ans: 320 km

Q4: What is the maximum strike range of the Tomahawk missile in the Typhon system?

Ans: 1,500 km

Killer whales

September 2, 2025
Killer Whales (Orcas)

Killer whales Latest News

A new study has found that killer whales may be exploring human behaviour by offering them whole prey and waiting for them to respond.

About Killer whales

  • It is also known as Orcas which is found across the world and it is the ocean’s top predator.
  • It is the largest member of the Delphinidae family, or dolphins and are the most widely distributed of all cetaceans.
  • Members of this family include all dolphin species, as well as other larger species, such as long-finned pilot whales and short-finned pilot whales, whose common names also contain “whale” instead of “dolphin”.
  • Behavior: Killer whales are highly social, and most live in social groups called pods (groups of maternally related individuals seen together more than half the time).
  • Killer whales rely on underwater sound to feed, communicate, and navigate.
  • Appearance: They are one of the most recognizable marine mammals, with their distinctive black and white bodies.
  • Habitat: Globally, killer whales occur in a wide range of habitats, in both open seas and coastal waters.
  • Threats: Killer whales are at high risk of becoming entangled in fishing gear. Also habitat loss is a major concern.
  • Conservation Status: IUCN: Data Deficient

Source: TH

Killer whales FAQs

Q1: Are killer whales aggressive to humans?

Ans: In the vast majority of encounters, killer whales have shown no aggression towards people.

Q2: What is special about killer whales?

Ans: They are highly intelligent and able to coordinate hunting tactics.

Bond Market in India – Rising Bond Yields Amid RBI Rate Cuts

September 2, 2025
Bond Market in India

Bond Market in India Latest News

  • India’s 10-year benchmark government bond yield has risen by about 26 basis points in the past month, despite the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) cutting the repo rate by 100 basis points over seven months. 
  • This divergence signals investor unease in the bond market in India over inflation, fiscal risks, and government borrowing requirements.

Bond Market in India

  • Meaning: 
    • The bond market in India is a structured space where governments, companies, and public sector organisations raise money by issuing bonds. 
    • The bond market is not just a place for investors to park their money—it plays a vital role in keeping the Indian economy running smoothly. 
  • Importance:
    • Funding the nation’s development: Example, when the government needs money to build roads, schools, hospitals, or even invest in green energy projects, it issues bonds. 
    • Fueling business growth: Corporate bonds allow businesses to raise money for expansion, new projects, or even to manage existing debt more efficiently.
    • Shaping interest rates: The bond market plays a key role in guiding interest rates. Bond yields—the returns investors expect—act as a benchmark for interest rates across the economy.
  • Types of bond markets in India:
    • Primary bond market: 
      • When a company or government needs funds, it issues bonds for the first time in this market. 
      • Investors purchase these fresh bonds directly from the issuer, providing immediate capital for the issuer’s projects. 
    • Secondary bond market:
      • It allows investors to buy and sell previously issued bonds among themselves. 
      • Prices in the secondary market fluctuate based on interest rates, issuer creditworthiness, and broader economic trends, offering both opportunities and risks for investors.
  • Key types of bonds one can invest in:
    • Government bond market: The government issues various types of bonds, such as -
      • Treasury Bills: Short-term securities with maturities up to one year, ideal for those seeking safety and quick returns.
      • G-Secs (Government Securities): Long-term bonds with maturities from 2 to 30 years, often used to fund major infrastructure projects.
      • State Development Loans (SDLs): Bonds issued by state governments for regional development.
    • Municipal bond market: State and local authorities issue municipal bonds to finance public infrastructure like water supply systems or urban transport. 
    • Corporate bond market: While these bonds carry higher risk compared to government bonds, they also offer higher coupon rates, providing an opportunity for greater returns.
  • Regulation: Government bonds are regulated by Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and Corporate bonds are regulated by Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).

Key Developments in Bond Market in India

  • Bond market dynamics:
    • 10-year bond yield: Rose from around 6.34% to 6.60% despite rate cuts.
    • General expectation: Bond yields fall when repo rate is cut; current rise shows investor concerns.
    • Implication: Rising yields leads to falling bond prices, reflecting selling pressure.
  • RBI’s policy stance:
    • RBI adopted a hawkish stance on inflation despite lowering rates.
    • Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) kept key rates unchanged:
      • Repo Rate: 5.50%
      • Standing Deposit Facility (SDF): 5.25%
      • Marginal Standing Facility (MSF): 5.75%
    • Growth forecast: 6.5% for 2025–26.
    • Inflation forecast: Revised down to 3.1% for 2025–26, but projected to rise to 4.9% in Q1 of 2026–27.

Yield Curve and Market Interpretation

  • Steepening yield curve: Long-term yields rose more sharply than short-term yields.
  • Investor expectation: Higher future borrowing costs.
  • Mutual fund outlook: RBI prioritising inflation control over growth revival.

GST Reform and Fiscal Concerns

  • Proposal: Rationalisation of GST from 4 slabs (5%, 12%, 18%, 28%) to 2 slabs (5%, 18%), plus 40% for sin goods.
  • Market concern:
    • Possible revenue loss of ₹50,000–60,000 crore.
    • Risk of fiscal slippage and higher borrowing needs.
  • Effect: Increased government borrowing would result in higher bond supply and rising yields.

Possible Corrective Measures

  • Government borrowing strategy: Shift to short/medium-term borrowing.
  • RBI interventions:
    • Open Market Operations (OMOs): RBI buys long-term bonds to reduce supply and yields.
    • Operation Twist: Simultaneous buying of long-term bonds and selling of short-term ones.

Forward Outlook

  • No immediate rate cuts likely due to inflation trajectory.
  • If inflation eases further, RBI may adopt a growth-supportive stance.
  • This could revive long-duration bonds and ease yields in the medium term.

Conclusion

  • Going forward, the bond market in India will hinge on how effectively the RBI balances inflation management with the government’s fiscal consolidation efforts. 
  • Prudent borrowing strategies and timely policy interventions like OMOs or Operation Twist can stabilize yields and create space for growth-supportive measures once inflation risks ease.

Source: IE

Bond Market in India FAQs

Q1: Why have India’s 10-year government bond yields risen despite successive repo rate cuts by the RBI?

Ans: Yields rose due to investor concerns over inflation, fiscal slippage, and higher government borrowing, outweighing the impact of policy rate cuts.

Q2: What does the steepening of the yield curve indicate in the context of India’s bond market?

Ans: It signals expectations of higher future borrowing costs and a market perception that inflation control is being prioritised over growth.

Q3: How could the proposed GST slab rationalisation impact India’s fiscal position?

Ans: It may cause a revenue shortfall of ₹50,000–60,000 crore, raising risks of fiscal deficit slippage and higher borrowing.

Q4: What tools can the RBI use to manage bond yields apart from repo rate changes?

Ans: RBI can employ Open Market Operations (OMOs) and Operation Twist to stabilise yields by influencing long-term bond supply.

Q5: What dilemma does the RBI face in balancing inflation control and economic growth?

Ans: While controlling inflation requires a hawkish stance, prolonged tightness may constrain growth, forcing the RBI to weigh stability against revival.

Supreme Court Revisits RTE Exemption for Minority Institutions

September 2, 2025
RTE Exemption

RTE Exemption Latest News

  • The Supreme Court has referred the issue of RTE exemption for minority institutions to a larger Bench, questioning its 2014 ruling that granted them blanket exemption.

Introduction

  • The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, is a cornerstone of India’s commitment to universal elementary education. 
  • However, a contentious legal question persists: should minority educational institutions, protected under Article 30 of the Constitution, be exempt from the provisions of the RTE Act? 
  • This debate resurfaced after the Supreme Court, on September 1, 2025, referred the issue to a larger Bench, signalling that its 2014 ruling in the Pramati Educational and Cultural Trust v. Union of India case may require reconsideration.

Debate on RTE Exemption to Minority Institutions

  • The heart of the debate lies in balancing two constitutional guarantees, Article 21A, which ensures free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14, and Article 30(1), which grants minorities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
  • The 2014 Constitution Bench had ruled that Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act, which mandates 25% reservation for children from disadvantaged groups in all private schools, would infringe upon the autonomy of minority institutions. 
  • This judgment effectively excluded all minority institutions, aided or unaided, from the purview of the RTE Act.
  • Critics argue that such blanket exemption dilutes inclusivity, fragments the common schooling system, and enables institutions to misuse minority status to avoid regulatory obligations. 
  • Proponents, however, stress that autonomy is essential for preserving the unique cultural and linguistic character of minority-run schools.

Background of the Case

  • The reference arose from appeals challenging the insistence of state education departments that teachers in minority institutions clear the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET), a minimum qualification prescribed under Section 23 of the RTE Act.
  • The two-judge Bench of the Supreme Court observed that the 2014 ruling had “unknowingly jeopardised the very foundation of universal elementary education.” 
  • The court noted that exempting minority institutions from the RTE framework weakens the vision of inclusivity, reinforcing divides instead of creating shared spaces for learning.

Supreme Court’s Observations and Summary

  • The Supreme Court, while referring the matter to a larger Bench, underlined several critical points:
    • Need for Reconsideration of 2014 Ruling: The Bench held serious doubts over the justification of granting blanket exemption, stating that applying the RTE Act “does not erode, let alone annihilate, the minority character” of institutions.
    • Social Inclusion and Section 12(1)(c): The judges emphasised that the 25% reservation under Section 12(1)(c) serves a vital purpose of social inclusion. 
      • Admitting disadvantaged children under a transparent, state-guided framework does not inherently compromise minority identity.
    • Financial Neutrality: The RTE Act includes reimbursement provisions for private schools implementing Section 12(1)(c), ensuring that the financial burden does not fall solely on institutions.
    • Inclusivity and Equality: The Bench highlighted that the larger purpose of the Act is to create integrated classrooms where children of different backgrounds learn together, aligning with the transformative goals of Article 21A.
    • Misuse of Minority Status: The court also flagged that some institutions have sought minority recognition primarily to bypass obligations under the RTE Act, creating “enclaves of privilege” at the cost of national development goals.
  • The matter will now be placed before the Chief Justice of India, who may constitute a larger Bench to examine whether minority institutions should continue to enjoy a blanket exemption from the RTE Act or whether a nuanced, fact-specific approach should be adopted.

Conclusion

  • The Supreme Court’s move to revisit the exemption of minority institutions from the RTE Act marks a crucial moment in India’s education and constitutional jurisprudence. 
  • It raises fundamental questions about equality, inclusivity, and autonomy. 
  • If the larger Bench revises the 2014 judgment, minority institutions may need to comply with provisions such as the 25% reservation under Section 12(1)(c), thereby reinforcing the idea of a common schooling system. 
  • Striking the right balance between minority rights and the universal right to education will be key to shaping the future of India’s education policy.

Source : TH | IE

RTE Exemption FAQs

Q1: What did the 2014 Supreme Court ruling on RTE and minority institutions state?

Ans: It held that the RTE Act violated Article 30 and granted minority institutions blanket exemption from its provisions.

Q2: Why has the Supreme Court referred the matter to a larger Bench in 2025?

Ans: The court observed that the 2014 ruling undermined inclusivity and may need reconsideration.

Q3: What is Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act?

Ans: It mandates 25% reservation in private schools for children from disadvantaged and weaker sections.

Q4: How does the Supreme Court view the impact of RTE on minority character?

Ans: The court held that applying the RTE Act does not erode the minority character of institutions.

Q5: What concerns has the court raised about minority status?

Ans: It noted that minority status is sometimes misused to evade obligations under the RTE Act.

India’s Cancer Map 2025: Regional Trends, Risk Factors, and Key Health Programmes

September 2, 2025
India’s Cancer Map

India’s Cancer Map Latest News

  • An analysis of data from 43 cancer registries shows India’s lifetime risk of developing cancer is 11%, with 15.6 lakh cases and 8.74 lakh deaths reported in 2024.
  • These population-based registries, covering 10–18% of the population across 23 states and Union Territories, track new cancer cases, deaths, and regional trends. 
  • Using 2015–19 data, researchers have identified critical patterns in cancer incidence, offering valuable insights for health policy and planning.

Key Trends in India’s Cancer Burden

  • An analysis of data from 43 cancer registries (2015–2019) recorded 7.08 lakh cancer cases and 2.06 lakh deaths. 
  • The study, conducted by researchers from leading institutions including AIIMS Delhi, Tata Memorial, and Adyar Cancer Institute, excluded 2020 data due to Covid’s impact on health systems.

Gender Disparities in Cancer Cases and Deaths

  • Women accounted for 51.1% of cancer cases but only 45% of deaths, largely because breast and cervical cancers — the most common among women — are more easily detectable and treatable. 
  • In contrast, cancers more common in men, like lung and gastric cancers, are harder to detect early and have poorer outcomes.

Rising Oral Cancer Cases

  • Oral cancer has now overtaken lung cancer as the most common cancer in men, despite declining tobacco use (34.6% to 28.6% between 2009–10 and 2016–17). 
  • This rise is attributed to the long latency of tobacco’s effects and additional risk factors such as alcohol consumption, which increases the risk of multiple cancers.

Northeast India: The Cancer Hotspot

  • The highest incidence rates were recorded in the Northeast, especially Mizoram (21.1% lifetime risk for men, 18.9% for women). 
  • Factors include higher tobacco use, risky dietary habits (fermented pork fat, smoked meats, spicy food, hot beverages), and greater prevalence of carcinogenic infections like HPV, Helicobacter pylori, and hepatitis.

Geographical Spread of Cancer in India

  • Cancer incidence shows strong regional variations. 
  • Breast cancer is highest in Hyderabad (54/100,000), while cervical cancer peaks in Aizawl (27.1). 
  • Lung cancer is most common among men in Srinagar (39.5) and among women in Aizawl (33.7), with high rates also in metro cities like Chennai, Delhi, Bengaluru, and Visakhapatnam. 
  • Oral cancer is most prevalent among men in Ahmedabad (33.6) and among women in East Khasi Hills (13.6), with high cases across western, central, and northern India. 
  • Prostate cancer is highest in Srinagar (12.7).

Policy and Healthcare Significance

  • Findings underline the need for targeted cancer care programs, from screening and awareness campaigns to early detection and treatment. 
  • In the Northeast, comprehensive approaches — including stronger healthcare infrastructure, community engagement, and lifestyle changes — are critical.

Prevention and Early Detection

  • With breast cancer alone contributing 30% of female cases, screening and awareness programs are essential. 
  • HPV vaccination and cervical cancer screening are vital given the high incidence of cervical cancer across registries. 
  • According to WHO, 30–50% of cancers are preventable through lifestyle changes and early detection, highlighting the importance of public health initiatives.

India’s Key Programmes to Fight Cancer

  • India has developed a multi-pronged strategy combining policy, infrastructure, financial aid, and research to combat the rising cancer burden.

National-Level Programmes

  • NPCDCS (National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke): Focuses on oral, breast, and cervical cancer screening, early detection, awareness, and infrastructure strengthening.
  • Strengthening of Tertiary Care for Cancer Scheme: Establishment of 19 State Cancer Institutes (SCIs) and 20 Tertiary Cancer Centres (TCCCs) to decentralise advanced cancer treatment.
  • Ayushman Bharat Yojana (PM-JAY): Provides free treatment (chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery) for poor families, covering over 90% of registered cancer patients.
  • Health Minister’s Cancer Patient Fund (HMCPF): Financial aid up to ₹15 lakh per patient, ensuring affordable treatment at 27 Regional Cancer Centres.
  • National Cancer Grid (NCG): World’s largest cancer care network (287 centres) treating over 7.5 lakh new cancer patients annually, ensuring standardised, evidence-based care.

Budget & Infrastructure Support

  • Union Budget 2025-26: Allocated nearly ₹1 lakh crore for health, including Day Care Cancer Centres in all districts, and customs duty exemptions on 36 lifesaving drugs.

Research & Innovation

  • NexCAR19 CAR-T Cell Therapy (2024): India’s first indigenous gene therapy for blood cancers, developed by IIT Bombay, Tata Memorial, and ImmunoACT.
  • Quad Cancer Moonshot (2024): Collaboration with the US, Japan, and Australia to eliminate cervical cancer through HPV vaccination and screening.
  • ACTREC Expansion (2025): Enhancing cutting-edge cancer research, treatment, and education facilities.

Awareness & Lifestyle Interventions

  • Campaigns like Eat Right India, Fit India Movement, and Yoga programmes promote prevention through nutrition and fitness.
  • National Cancer Awareness Day and World Cancer Day are used for mass awareness campaigns.

Source: IE | IE | PIB

India’s Cancer Map FAQs

Q1: What does India’s cancer map reveal about overall risk?

Ans: The analysis shows a lifetime cancer risk of 11%, with 15.6 lakh cases and 8.74 lakh deaths reported across India in 2024.

Q2: Which cancers are most common in Indian women?

Ans: Breast and cervical cancers account for 40% of female cases, often detected earlier and with better treatment outcomes compared to male-dominant cancers like lung cancer.

Q3: Why is oral cancer rising among Indian men?

Ans: Despite declining tobacco use, oral cancer rates are increasing due to long latency of tobacco effects and other risks like alcohol consumption.

Q4: Why is Northeast India considered a cancer hotspot?

Ans: High tobacco use, unique diets, infections like HPV, and risky lifestyle factors make the Northeast region record India’s highest cancer incidence rates.

Q5: What programmes is India implementing to fight cancer?

Ans: Key initiatives include NPCDCS screening, Ayushman Bharat coverage, State Cancer Institutes, National Cancer Grid, NexCAR19 gene therapy, and HPV vaccination drives.

25th SCO Summit 2025: Key Outcomes, Documents Signed, and India’s Role

September 2, 2025
25th SCO Summit 2025

25th SCO Summit 2025 Latest News

  • PM Modi attended the 25th SCO Summit in Tianjin, China, where discussions focused on global governance reform, counter-terrorism, peace and security, economic cooperation, and sustainable development.
  • Established in 2001 by founding members China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) now has 10 member states, two observer states and 15 dialogue partners from Asia, Europe and Africa. 
    • Laos was granted the partner status during 2025 summit.
  • In 2017, at Astana, India and Pakistan officially joined SCO as full members.

Key Documents Signed at the 2025 SCO Summit in Tianjin

  • At the 25th Meeting of the Council of Heads of State of the SCO in Tianjin, 20 significant documents were signed, shaping the future agenda of the grouping.

Strategic Declarations and Resolutions

  • Tianjin Declaration adopted as the central political outcome.
  • A Development Strategy for 2026–2035 was approved, outlining long-term priorities and direction for the SCO’s growth in the next decade.
  • Cooperation Programme (2026–2030) to counter extremist ideology within SCO space.
  • Roadmap for SCO Energy Cooperation until 2030.
  • SCO granted observer status within the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
  • Cholpon Ata (Kyrgyz Republic) declared SCO tourist and cultural capital for 2025–2026.

Institutional Strengthening

  • Four new SCO centers were inaugurated with dedicated roles:
    • Countering security threats and challenges.
    • Tackling transnational organized crime.
    • Enhancing information and cybersecurity.
    • Strengthening anti-drug cooperation.
  • Decision taken to establish an SCO Development Bank, aimed at boosting infrastructure development, economic progress, and social cooperation among member states.

Expanded Cooperation Platforms

  • The summit announced initiatives to create new SCO platforms and centers in the fields of:
    • Energy and sustainable growth.
    • Green industry and climate-friendly practices.
    • Digital economy and cybersecurity.
    • Artificial intelligence, tech innovation, and higher education.
    • Vocational and technical education for workforce development.

Structural Reforms and Expansion

  • Major breakthrough in structural reforms: observer states and dialogue partners were merged into a single category of SCO partners.
  • Laos was granted partner status, expanding the SCO into a 27-nation family (10 members and 17 partners).

SCO Tianjin Declaration: Pahalgam Attack Mentioned

  • The declaration explicitly condemned the April 2025 Pahalgam terror attack in India, which killed 26 people.
  • Condolences were expressed to victims’ families, with a call to bring perpetrators and sponsors to justice.
  • Other incidents, such as the Jaffer Express hijacking (March) and Khuzdar school bus bombing (May) in Pakistan, were also condemned.

Departure from Defence Ministers’ Meet

  • At the SCO Defence Ministers’ meeting in Qingdao (June 2025), Pahalgam was omitted from the draft statement due to Pakistan’s opposition.
  • India’s Defence Minister Rajnath Singh refused to sign the statement then, insisting terrorism concerns must be included.
  • Three months later, the leaders’ summit corrected this omission, explicitly mentioning Pahalgam and cross-border terrorism.

Changing India-China Dynamics

  • Relations between India and China showed signs of thaw, with PM Modi’s first China visit in seven years to meet President Xi Jinping.
  • The Tianjin declaration is seen as a signal of Beijing’s willingness to strengthen ties with New Delhi amid US tariff pressures.
  • Despite the shift, the declaration did not name Pakistan for sponsoring terrorism.
  • For India, the mention of Pahalgam is progress, but trust-building with Beijing requires much more.

Key Highlights of PM Modi’s Speech at 2025 SCO Summit in Tianjin

  • In his address, PM Modi outlined India’s SCO vision under three pillars – Security, Connectivity and Opportunity. 
  • He stressed that peace and stability are essential for prosperity and called for firm, coordinated action against terrorism, radicalisation, and terror financing, while rejecting double standards. 
  • He thanked member states for their solidarity after the Pahalgam terror attack and urged accountability for countries supporting cross-border terrorism.
  • On connectivity, he reaffirmed India’s strong backing for projects like the Chabahar Port and the International North-South Transport Corridor, and highlighted opportunities in startups, innovation, youth empowerment, and cultural exchange. 
  • He also proposed establishing a Civilizational Dialogue Forum under SCO to deepen people-to-people ties.
  • Supporting SCO’s reform agenda, PM Modi welcomed new initiatives to counter organised crime, drug trafficking, and cyber threats.
  • He and urged a similar approach for reforming global institutions, including the United Nations, to make them more representative and effective.

Source: TH | IE |MEA

25th SCO Summit 2025 FAQs

Q1: What was the main focus of the 25th SCO Summit 2025?

Ans: The summit focused on global governance reform, counter-terrorism, economic cooperation, sustainable development, and expanding partnerships under a new 2026–2035 development strategy.

Q2: What key documents were signed at the SCO Summit in Tianjin?

Ans: Twenty major documents were signed, including the Tianjin Declaration, SCO 2035 Development Strategy, counter-extremism programme, and roadmap for energy cooperation.

Q3: What did the Tianjin Declaration say about terrorism?

Ans: It strongly condemned the Pahalgam terror attack, along with incidents in Pakistan, and called for bringing perpetrators and sponsors of terrorism to justice.

Q4: What were PM Modi’s priorities at the SCO Summit?

Ans: PM Modi outlined India’s vision of security, connectivity, and opportunity, stressing counter-terrorism, regional stability, connectivity projects, and a new Civilizational Dialogue Forum.

Q5: What institutional changes were announced at the SCO Summit?

Ans: Four new SCO centres were created for security, cyber threats, drugs, and crime, alongside a decision to establish an SCO Development Bank.

UPSC Daily Quiz 2 September 2025

September 2, 2025
UPSC Daily Quiz

The Daily UPSC Quiz by Vajiram & Ravi is a thoughtfully curated initiative designed to support UPSC aspirants in strengthening their current affairs knowledge and core conceptual understanding. Aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, this daily quiz serves as a revision resource, helping candidates assess their preparation, revise key topics, and stay updated with relevant issues. Whether you are preparing for Prelims or sharpening your revision for Mains, consistent practice with these Daily UPSC Quiz can significantly enhance accuracy, speed, and confidence in solving exam-level questions

[WpProQuiz 59]

UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Srivilliputhur Megamalai Tiger Reserve

September 2, 2025
Srivilliputhur Megamalai Tiger Reserve

Srivilliputhur–Meghamalai Tiger Reserve Latest News

Recently, concerns have been raised over the unauthorised construction and repair of three roads in Theni district within the Srivilliputhur–Meghamalai Tiger Reserve (SMTR).

About Srivilliputhur–Meghamalai Tiger Reserve

  • It is spread across the districts of Theni, Virudhunagar and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
  • It lies in the ecologically sensitive Western Ghats region.
  • It was formed in February 2021 by combining Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary and Megamalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
  • It will function as a connecting link between Kerala’s Periyar Tiger Reserve and Tamil Nadu’s Southern Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
  • The Srivilliputhu Megamalai Tiger Reserve (SMTR) area primarily relies on three perennial rivers: Vaigai, Suruliyaru, and Shanmuganathi. 

Flora and Fauna of Srivilliputhur–Meghamalai Tiger Reserve

  • It’s a blend of tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, dry deciduous and moist mixed deciduous woods, and grasslands.
  • Mammals: Elephants, Tiger, Leopard, Nilgiri Tahr, Gaur, Spotted Deer, Barking Deer, Sambar Deer, Wild Boar, Porcupine, Nilgiri Langur, Lion-Tailed Macaque etc.
  • Birds: Red-Whiskered Bulbul, Common Iora, White-Browed Wagtail, Grey Wagtail, Pied Bush Chat etc.
  • Reptiles: Wood Snake, Monitor Lizard, Chameleon, etc.

Source: TH

Srivilliputhur–Meghamalai Tiger Reserve FAQs

Q1: Which river flows through Srivilliputhur-Megamalai Tiger Reserve?

Ans: The Srivilliputhu Megamalai Tiger Reserve (SMTR) area primarily relies on three perennial rivers: Vaigai, Suruliyaru, and Shanmuganathi.

Q2: When was Srivilliputhur-Megamalai Tiger Reserve established?

Ans: It was formed in February 2021 by combining Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary and Megamalai Wildlife Sanctuary.

Exercise Yudh Abhyas

September 2, 2025
Exercise Yudh Abhyas

Exercise Yudh Abhyas Latest News

Recently, an Indian Army contingent has departed for Fort Wainwright, Alaska, USA, to participate in the 21st edition of the Exercise Yudh Abhyas.

About Exercise Yudh Abhyas

  • It is the joint military exercise held between India and USA.
  • The Indian contingent, comprising personnel from a battalion of the Madras Regiment is taking part in this exercise.
  • Over two weeks, troops will rehearse a spectrum of tactical drills including heliborne operations, employment of surveillance resources and unmanned aerial systems, rock craft, mountain warfare, casualty evacuation, combat medical aid and the integrated use of Artillery, Aviation and Electronic Warfare systems.
  • In addition, subject-matter experts from both armies will conduct working groups on critical domains such as UAS and Counter-UAS operations, information warfare, communications and logistics.
  • The exercise will culminate in jointly planned and executed tactical manoeuvres, ranging from live-fire exercises to high-altitude warfare scenarios, with a focus on improving capabilities for United Nations peacekeeping operations and strengthening preparedness for multi-domain challenges.

Other Exercises between India and USA

  • Army:  Vajra Prahar
  • Navy: MALABAR (Multilateral)
  • Air Force: Cope India, Red Flag (Multilateral)

Source: PIB

Exercise Yudh Abhyas FAQs

Q1: What is the Yudh Abhyas exercise?

Ans: Yudh Abhyas is a bilateral military exercise between the Indian Army and the United States Army.

Q2: What is the aim of the Yudh Abhyas?

Ans: The primary objective of Yudh Abhyas is to enhance interoperability and cooperation between the two armies.

PRATUSH Telescope

September 2, 2025
PRATUSH Telescope

PRATUSH Telescope Latest News

Scientists at the Raman Research Institute have proposed a pioneering mission called PRATUSH designed to unlock the Cosmic Dawn.

About PRATUSH Telescope

  • Probing ReionizATion of the Universe using Signal from Hydrogen (PRATUSH) is a radio telescope to be sited on the moon’s far side.
  • It is built by the Raman Research Institute (RRI) in Bengaluru with active collaboration from the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
  • PRATUSH will carry a wideband frequency-independent antenna, operating over the frequency band 30-250 MHz, a self-calibratable analog receiver, and a digital correlator with high spectral resolution.
  • The observing strategy of PRATUSH will be to continually observe large sky regions, and recording spectra of the beam-averaged radio emission with a high spectral resolution of 100 kHz.
  • The nominal lifetime of the payload will be two years for achieving high signal-to-noise ratio with sufficient sky-coverage.
  • The preferred orbit for the payload will be a circumlunar orbit to enable a measurement of radio sky spectrum from the dark and far side of the Moon.
  • At the heart of PRATUSH’s innovative design lies an unexpectedly modest piece of technology: a compact single-board computer (SBC). Built initially around a Raspberry Pi, the SBC is serving as the master controller for the radiometer system.
  • The SBC coordinates PRATUSH’s entire operation:
    • Managing the antenna that collects cosmic signals
    • Overseeing the analog receiver that amplifies them
    • Controlling the Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) that converts these signals into digital fingerprints, mapping the brightness of the sky at different frequencies
    • Recording and storing high-speed data streams while also carrying out preliminary data processing and calibrations.

Source: PIB

PRATUSH Telescope FAQs

Q1: What is Pratush telescope?

Ans: PRATUSH is a future radiometer in lunar orbit that will reveal the Cosmic Dawn of our Universe.

Q2: Which organization developed the Pratush telescope?

Ans: PRATUSH (Probing ReionizATion of the Universe using Signal from Hydrogen) is being built by the Raman Research Institute (RRI) in Bengaluru.

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