Articles on 20 September 2025

by Vajiram & Ravi - 20 September 2025

Vajiram & Ravi provides Daily articles for 20 September 2025, tailored for aspirants. We cover all relevant news and events crucial for the exam, ensuring you stay updated & well-prepared.

Capitalist Economy, Meaning, Features, Countries, Merits, Demerits

September 20, 2025
Capitalist Economy

A Capitalist Economy is an economic system where the means of production and distribution are privately owned. Individuals and businesses make their own economic decisions, while the market determines prices based on supply and demand.

The government’s role is generally limited to regulating the market and protecting private property rights. In this system, profit drives business activity, and competition encourages innovation and efficiency. Capitalism is the predominant economic model in most developed nations today.

Capitalist Economy Features

A Capitalist Economy is driven by private ownership, profit motives, and market forces. Its functioning relies on the freedom of individuals and businesses to make economic decisions, with minimal government interference. The system encourages competition, innovation, and efficiency, shaping production, consumption, and wealth distribution. The following points highlight its key features:

Capitalist Economy Features

S. No

Feature

Description

1

Private Property

Individuals and businesses have the right to own and control the property.

2

Free Market

Prices of goods and services are determined by supply and demand in a competitive market.

3

Profit Motive

Businesses are motivated by the desire to earn profits.

4

Competition

Competition between businesses drives innovation and efficiency.

5

Limited Government Intervention

The government’s role is limited to regulating the market and protecting private property rights.

6

Consumer Sovereignty

Consumers have the power to influence the market through their purchasing decisions.

7

Division of Labor

Workers specialize in specific tasks to increase efficiency and productivity.

Capitalist Economy Countries List

The table below highlights some of the most notable examples of Capitalist Economy around the world. It summarizes each country’s key features, showing how capitalism operates differently based on factors like industry focus, workforce skills, government regulation, and international trade. This provides a clear overview of how diverse capitalist systems can be in practice.

Capitalist Economy Countries List

Country

Key Features of Capitalist Economy

United States

Highly developed and diversified; strong emphasis on entrepreneurship, innovation, and individual freedoms.

Japan

Focus on manufacturing and technological innovation; highly skilled workforce; known for high-quality products.

United Kingdom

Long history of capitalism; emphasis on international trade and finance; home to many multinational corporations.

Germany

Mixed economy with focus on manufacturing, exports, and innovation; skilled workforce; precision engineering.

Hong Kong

Small but highly developed; emphasis on trade and finance; low taxes and minimal government regulation.

Singapore

Small, developed economy; strong trade and finance sector; highly educated workforce; favourable business climate.

Capitalist Economy Merits

  • Economic Efficiency: Competition drives producers to lower costs and improve quality, ensuring efficient resource allocation and higher productivity.
  • Economic Growth: Incentives for entrepreneurship and investment promote new products, technologies, and job creation, fueling economic expansion.
  • Individual Freedom: Capitalism upholds private property rights and allows individuals and businesses to pursue their economic interests with minimal government interference.
  • Consumer Choice: A wide variety of goods and services are available, catering to diverse needs and enhancing living standards.
  • Innovation and Progress: Entrepreneurs are rewarded for developing new products and technologies, promoting constant improvement across industries.
  • International Trade: Openness to trade and investment expands markets and creates global economic opportunities for businesses and consumers.

Capitalist Economy Demerits

  • Economic Inequality: Wealth and resources can become concentrated in the hands of a few, creating social and political tensions and limiting equal opportunities.
  • Market Failures: Free markets may fail to allocate resources efficiently or fairly, as seen in monopolies or externalities like pollution, often requiring government intervention.
  • Environmental Impact: Prioritizing growth over sustainability can lead to pollution, resource depletion, and long-term ecological consequences.
  • Business Cycles: Capitalist Economy are prone to fluctuations in production, employment, and income, creating economic instability.
  • Limited Social Safety Nets: Emphasis on self-reliance can result in inadequate support for those facing economic hardship.

Global Economic Inequality: Disparities between developed and developing countries can hinder global development and poverty reduction efforts.

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Capitalist Economy FAQs

Q1: What is the capitalist economy?

Ans: A capitalist economy is a system where private individuals or corporations own production, make profits, and decide investment, distribution, and prices with minimal government intervention.

Q2: What is an example of capitalism?

Ans: The United States is a prime example, where private businesses dominate production, markets determine prices, and individuals pursue profit under limited government regulation.

Q3: Is India a capitalist economy?

Ans: Yes, India follows a mixed economy with capitalist elements: private enterprises, market-driven trade, and profit motives coexist with government intervention in welfare and regulation.

Q4: What are the 5 features of capitalism?

Ans: Private property, profit motive, competition, consumer sovereignty, and minimal government interference are the five defining features of capitalism.

Q5: What are the 4 stages of capitalism?

Ans: Four stages: Merchant capitalism, Industrial capitalism, Financial capitalism, and Global or Monopoly capitalism, each showing evolution in production, trade, and economic dominance.

Isotherms, Meaning, Features, Lines, Adsorption Isotherms

September 20, 2025
Isotherms

Isotherms are lines drawn on a map to connect places that share the same temperature at a specific time or over a given period. They help in visualising temperature distribution across regions. For instance, if a location in South America and another in Central Africa record the same temperature, they can be linked by an Isotherm on a world map. Such maps, called Isothermal Maps, make it easier to study climate patterns and temperature variations.

Isotherms Features

Isotherms are imaginary lines on a map that connect places with the same temperature. They help in understanding global temperature distribution, seasonal variations, and the influence of land, sea, and ocean currents.

Isotherms Features

Aspect

Explanation

Example/Note

Definition

Lines on a map connecting points of equal temperature.

Used in Isothermal maps.

General Pattern

Usually run parallel to the equator.

Show global temperature distribution.

Temperature Variation

Temperatures decrease from equator to poles.

Equatorial regions are hottest.

Spacing of Isotherms

Close together - rapid temperature change; Far apart - gradual change.

Seen in coastal vs. inland areas.

Isotherms in January

Move north over oceans (warmer seas), south over land (colder continents).

Gulf Stream warms the N. Atlantic, bending Isotherms north; in Europe, they bend south.

Specific Example

At 60°E longitude in January, -20°C is observed at both 80°N and 50°N.

Shows sharp temperature drop.

Southern Hemisphere

More parallel to latitude lines due to less landmass; shows gradual change.

Contrast with the Northern Hemisphere.

Isotherms in July

20°C - 35°S, 10°C - 45°S, 0°C - 60°S.

Generally follow latitude lines.

Isotherms Temperature Distribution

The distribution of global temperatures is best understood through Isotherms, lines that connect areas with the same temperature. Since temperature is closely linked to latitude, Isotherms generally follow latitude lines. However, factors like land-sea contrast and ocean currents cause deviations. These deviations are more pronounced in January due to strong seasonal contrasts in the Northern Hemisphere, which has more landmass compared to the Southern Hemisphere.

Isotherms Lines

By studying temperature patterns in January and July, we can better understand the global distribution of heat. On maps, this distribution is shown with Isotherms, lines connecting places with the same temperature. Since temperature is strongly influenced by latitude, Isotherms usually run parallel to the latitude lines. This makes the effect of latitude on temperature clearly visible.

However, departures from this general pattern also occur. These deviations are more pronounced in January, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, than in July. The reason lies in the unequal distribution of land and water across the globe. The Northern Hemisphere has much more land area than the Southern Hemisphere, and this greater landmass, along with the influence of ocean currents, produces noticeable shifts in Isotherms.

Seasonal Temperature Distribution January

In January, the Northern Hemisphere is in winter, while the Southern Hemisphere experiences summer. The pattern of Isotherms reflects the contrast between land and sea, as well as the influence of winds and ocean currents.

Northern Hemisphere

  • Ocean vs. Land Effect: Isotherms shift northward over the oceans and southward over the continents.
  • Western Margins: Westerlies carry oceanic warmth inland, so the western margins of continents are warmer than the eastern sides.
  • North Atlantic Influence: Warm currents like the Gulf Stream raise sea temperatures, bending Isotherms northward in the Atlantic.
  • Continental Cold: Over northern landmasses, especially the Siberian Plain, Isotherms bend southward, reflecting extreme cold. Northern Siberia and Greenland record the lowest temperatures.

Southern Hemisphere

  • Ocean Dominance: With less landmass, oceans exert greater control. Isotherms here are mostly parallel to latitudes, showing gradual temperature change.
  • High-Temperature Belt: In January, a warm belt is located near 30°S latitude.
  • Thermal Equator: The thermal equator shifts slightly south of the geographical equator, following the southward movement of the Sun and the ITCZ

Seasonal Temperature Distribution July

In July, the Northern Hemisphere is in summer, while the Southern Hemisphere experiences winter. The Isothermal behaviour is opposite to January. Overall, Isotherms run more parallel to latitudes, but land–ocean contrasts still influence their pattern.

General Features

  • Equatorial Oceans: Temperatures exceed 27°C.
  • Subtropical Asia (30°N belt): Land temperatures rise above 30°C, showing continental heating.
  • Thermal Equator: Shifts north of the geographical equator, following the apparent northward movement of the Sun.

Northern Hemisphere

  • Continental Heating: Overheated continents curve Isotherms northward, especially in Asia.
  • Temperature Extremes: The largest range (>60°C) occurs in northeastern Eurasia due to its vast size.
  • Minimal Range: Between 20°S and 15°N, the range narrows to about 3°C.
  • Oceans vs. Continents: Isotherms bend southward over oceans, reflecting cooler waters that moderate nearby land.
  • Hottest Regions: Northern Africa, West Asia, northwest India, and the southeastern USA.
  • Coldest Zone: Greenland records the lowest July temperatures.
  • Pattern: Highly irregular and zigzagging, due to strong land–ocean contrast.

Southern Hemisphere

  • Steady Gradient: Isotherms are smoother and parallel to latitudes, with less variation because oceans dominate.
  • Continental Effect: Slight bending of Isotherms toward the equator at continental edges.
  • Thermal Equator: Lies north of the equator in July.

Vertical Distribution of Temperature

The normal lapse rate is the average rate at which air temperature decreases with increasing altitude in the troposphere. On average, it is about 6.5°C per 1,000 meters of ascent. This lapse rate remains fairly consistent at different heights within the troposphere.

  • At the tropopause, the lapse rate stops, meaning the temperature no longer decreases with height but becomes almost constant.
  • In the lower stratosphere, the lapse rate stays constant for some distance before temperature starts to rise again due to ozone absorption of solar radiation.
  • Interestingly, temperatures in the lower stratosphere are relatively higher over the poles. This happens because the stratosphere is closer to Earth at the poles (lower height of tropopause), so heat exchange processes make polar stratospheric layers warmer compared to the equatorial regions at the same altitude.

Adsorption Isotherm

An Adsorption Isotherm is a graph that shows the relationship between the amount of a substance (adsorbate) that adheres to the surface of another material (adsorbent) at a constant temperature and the pressure of the adsorbate gas.

According to Le Chatelier’s principle, if the pressure of the adsorbate gas increases, the system adjusts by allowing more molecules to stick to the adsorbent surface, thereby reducing the number of free molecules in the gas phase.

However, the graph shows that beyond a certain point, called the saturation pressure, the adsorption curve levels off. This happens because the surface of the adsorbent has only a limited number of sites available. Once all of them are occupied, no additional molecules can stick, regardless of how much the pressure is increased.

Adsorption Isotherm Types

Over time, different scientists have proposed various models to explain adsorption isotherms. The most well-known include:

  • Langmuir Isotherm - Explains adsorption on a uniform surface with a fixed number of identical sites.
  • Freundlich Isotherm - An empirical model that describes adsorption on heterogeneous surfaces.
  • BET Theory (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) - Extends Langmuir’s model to multilayer adsorption, especially useful for studying surface area.

Since adsorption isotherms are part of Organic Chemistry, we won’t dive into detailed mathematical treatment here, to keep the concept simple and clear.

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Isotherms FAQs

Q1: What is the definition of an isotherm?

Ans: An isotherm is a line on a map or graph connecting points that share the same temperature at a given time or average period.

Q2: What is isotherm in geography?

Ans: In geography, an isotherm represents lines joining places with equal temperature on maps, helping climatologists study heat distribution, climatic zones, and seasonal temperature variations.

Q3: What are isotherms in UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, isotherms are lines showing equal temperatures on maps, crucial for understanding climate patterns, ocean currents, monsoons, and global warming’s geographical impact in physical geography.

Q4: What are isobars and isotherms?

Ans: Isobars are lines connecting equal atmospheric pressure points, while isotherms connect equal temperature points. Both help in weather forecasting, climate studies, and analyzing atmospheric conditions worldwide.

Q5: What are the different types of isotherms?

Ans: Isotherms can be seasonal (summer/winter), annual (yearly averages), and diurnal (daily variations). They help differentiate temperature trends across latitudes, oceans, and continents for climatic classification.

UPSC Daily Quiz 20 September 2025

September 20, 2025
UPSC Daily Quiz

The Daily UPSC Quiz by Vajiram & Ravi is a thoughtfully curated initiative designed to support UPSC aspirants in strengthening their current affairs knowledge and core conceptual understanding. Aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, this daily quiz serves as a revision resource, helping candidates assess their preparation, revise key topics, and stay updated with relevant issues. Whether you are preparing for Prelims or sharpening your revision for Mains, consistent practice with these Daily UPSC Quiz can significantly enhance accuracy, speed, and confidence in solving exam-level questions.

[WpProQuiz 75]  

UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Inventions and Discoveries, List, Difference, Discoverer

September 20, 2025
Inventions and Discoveries

Inventions and Discoveries have been central to the progress of human civilization. From simple tools to advanced machines, they have transformed transportation, communication, healthcare, and entertainment. Driven by curiosity, ingenuity, and problem-solving, these breakthroughs not only expand knowledge but also give rise to new industries, businesses, and job opportunities, fueling economic growth and societal development.

Inventions and Discoveries

Inventions and Discoveries have been pivotal in shaping human civilisation and advancing knowledge and technology. They range from simple tools and techniques to complex machines and systems that have transformed transportation, communication, healthcare, and entertainment. Driven by human curiosity, ingenuity, and problem-solving, these breakthroughs often lead to the creation of new industries, businesses, and job opportunities, fueling societal and economic development.

Difference Between Inventions and Discoveries

In the journey of human progress, both Inventions and Discoveries have played crucial roles. While inventions are human-made creations designed to solve problems, discoveries are revelations of pre-existing phenomena or knowledge. Understanding the Difference Between Inventions and Discoveries helps clarify their impact on science, technology, and society.

Difference Between Inventions and Discoveries
Aspect Invention Discoveries

Definition

Creation of something new that did not exist before

Finding or uncovering something that already exists in nature

Origin

Result of human creativity and ingenuity

Result of observation, exploration, or analysis

Purpose

To solve a problem or fulfill a need

To gain knowledge or understanding

Examples

Telephone, light bulb, printing press

Gravity, electricity, planet Uranus

Focus

Practical application

Knowledge and understanding

Nature

Human-made

Found in nature

List of Inventions and Discoveries

Throughout history, countless Inventions and Discoveries have transformed the course of human civilization. Some notable examples are listed below:

List of Inventions and Discoveries

Invention/Discovery

Name of the Inventor

Year of Invention

Automatic Calculator

Wilhelm Schickard

1623

Air Conditioner

Willis Carrier

1902

Anemometer

Leon Battista Alberti

1450

Animation

J. Stuart Blackton

—

Atom Bomb

Julius Robert Oppenheimer

1945

Aspirin

Dr. Felix Hoffman

1899

Airplane

Wilber and Orville Wright

1903

Adhesive tape

Richard G. Drew

1923

Bifocal Lens

Benjamin Franklin

1779

Barometer

Evangelista Torricelli

1643

Barbed Wire

Joseph F. Glidden

1873

Blood Group

Karl Lansdsteiner

1900s

Ball Point Pen

John Loud

—

Bicycle Tyres

John Boyd Dunlop

1888

Pedal Driven Bicycle

Kirkpatrick Macmillan

1839

Celluloid

Alexander Parkes

1861

Chloroform

Sir James Young Simpson

—

Cine Camera

Wm. Friese-Greene

1889

Circulation of blood

William Harvey

1628

Clock Mechanical

Hsing and Ling-Tsan

1725

Diesel Engine

Rudolf Diesel

1892

Centigrade Scale

Anders Celsius

1742

Chlorine

Carl Wilhelm Scheele

1774

Dynamite

Alfred B. Nobel

1867

Diesel Engine

Rudolf Diesel

1895

Electric stove/cooker

William S. Hadaway

1896

Electroscope

William Gilbert

1600s

Electric Fan

Schuyler Wheeler

1882

Electric Battery

Volta

1800

Elevator

Elisha G. Otis

1852

Electric Motor (DC)

Thomas Davenport

1873

Electromagnet

William Sturgeon

1824

Fountain Pen

Petrache Poenaru

1827

Fluorine

André-Marie Ampère

1810

Gramophone

Thomas Edison

1878

Hydrogen

Henry Cavendish

1766

Helicopter

Igor Sikorsky

1939

Hovercraft

Christopher Cockerell

1959

Hot Air Balloon

Josef & Etienne Montgolfier

1783

Helium

Jules Janssen

1868

Insulin

Sir Frederick Banting

1923

Jet Engine

Hans Von Ohain

1936

Lightning Conductor

Benjamin Franklin

1752

Locomotive

George Stephenson

1804

Laser

Theodore Maiman

1960

Light Bulb

Thomas Edison

1854

Motorcycle

Gottlieb Daimler

1885

Microscope

Zacharis Janssen

1590

Microphone

Alexander Graham Bell

1876

Machine Gun

Richard Gatling

1861

Neon Lamp

Georges Claude

1915

Oxygen

Joseph Priestley

1774

Ozone

Christian Schonbein

1839

Piano

Bartolomeo Cristofori

1700

Printing Press

Johannes Gutenberg

1440

Parachute

Louis-Sebastien Lenormand

1783

Polio Vaccine

Jonas Edward Salk

–

Periodic Table

Dmitri Mendeleev

1869

Penicillin

Alexander Fleming

1928

Pacemaker

Rune Elmqvist

1952

Petrol for Motor Car

Karl Benz

1885

Refrigerator

William Cullen

1748

Radium

Marie & Pierre Curie

1898

Rubber (vulcanized)

Charles Goodyear

1841

Rocket Engine

Robert H. Goddard

1926

Radio

Guglielmo Marconi

1894

Richter Scale

Charles Richter

1935

Ship (Turbine)

Charles Parsons

1894

Steam Ship

Robert Fulton

1807

Steam Boat

Robert Fulton

1786

Submarine

Cornelis Drebbel

1620

Stethoscope

Rene Laennec

1816

Saxophone

Adolphe Sax

1846

Sewing Machine

Elias Howe

1846

Steam-Powered Airship

Henri Giffard

1852

Soft Contact lenses

Otto Wichterle

1961

Synthesizer

Dr. Robert Arthur Moog

1964

Thermometer

Galileo

1593

Theory of Evolution

Charles Darwin

1858

Typewriter

Christopher Latham Sholes

—

Transistors

John Bardeen, William Shockley & Walter Brattain

1948

Telephone

Graham Bell

1874

Valve. Radio

Sir J.A Fleming

1904

Vacuum Cleaner

Hubert Cecil Booth

1901

Vitamin A

Frederick Gowland Hpokins

1912

Vitamin B

Christiaan Eijkman

1897

Vitamin C

Albert Szent-Gyorgi

–

Vitamin K

Henrik Dam

1929

Vitamin E

Herbert McLean Evans & Katherine Scott Bishop

  

Windshield wipers

Mary Anderson

1903

World Wide Web

Tim Berners Lee with Robert Cailliau

1989

X-ray

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

1895

Xerox Machine

Chester Carlson

1928

List of Important Discoveries

Discoveries have expanded our understanding of the natural world, human behaviour, and the universe. By exploring, observing, and analysing phenomena, they have led to new theories, technologies, and ways of thinking.

List of Important Discoveries

S. No

Discovery

Discoverer

Year of Discovery

1

Structure of DNA

James Watson and Francis Crick

1953

2

Evolution by natural selection

Charles Darwin

1859

3

Laws of thermodynamics

Sadi Carnot, James Prescott Joule, Rudolf Clausius

1824-1865

4

Theory of relativity

Albert Einstein

1905-1915

5

Periodic table

Dmitri Mendeleev

1869

6

Plate tectonics

Alfred Wegener

1912

7

Big Bang theory

Georges Lemaître

1927

8

Quantum mechanics

Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Paul Dirac

1900-1930s

9

Higgs Boson

Peter Higgs and François Englert

2012

10

Black holes

John Michell and Albert Einstein

1783, 1916

11

Exoplanets

Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail

1992

12

Continental Drift

Alfred Wegener

1912

13

Electron

J.J. Thomson

1897

14

Radioactivity

Marie Curie, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel

1896-1898

15

Neutron

James Chadwick

1932

16

Proton

Ernest Rutherford

1917

17

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson

1965

18

Gravitational Waves

LIGO Scientific Collaboration

2015

19

Ozone Hole

Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner, and Jonathan Shanklin

1985

20

Greenhouse Effect

Joseph Fourier, John Tyndall, and Svante Arrhenius

1824, 1861, 1896

21

Dark Matter

Fritz Zwicky

1933

22

Dark Energy

Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt, and Adam G. Riess

1998

23

First Supermassive Black Hole

Maarten Schmidt

1963

24

First Black Hole Merger

LIGO Scientific Collaboration

2015

25

First Gravitational Lens

J. H. Oort and F. Zwicky

1937
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Inventions and Discoveries FAQs

Q1: What are the 10 most important inventions and their inventors?

Ans: Wheel – unknown, Printing Press – Gutenberg, Telephone – Bell, Electric Bulb – Edison, Penicillin – Fleming, Internet – Berners-Lee, Airplane – Wright Brothers, Steam Engine – Watt, Computer – Babbage, Vaccination – Jenner.

Q2: What are the 20 most important inventions and their inventors?

Ans: Above ten plus: Radio – Marconi, Television – Baird, Automobile – Benz, Camera – Niépce, Refrigerator – Cullen, Compass – Chinese, Telescope – Lippershey, Ink – Gutenberg, Antibiotics – Fleming, Laser – Maiman.

Q3: What are discoveries and inventions?

Ans: A discovery finds something existing, like gravity; an invention creates something new, like the telephone or light bulb, for practical human use.

Q4: What are the top 100 inventions?

Ans: They include wheel, printing press, electricity, telephone, radio, airplane, internet, penicillin, computer, steam engine, vaccination, automobile, telescope, camera, television, laser, refrigerator, and many more.

Q5: Who is the biggest invention?

Ans: The most transformative inventions are the wheel, printing press, electricity, and internet, as they have profoundly changed human civilization.

Elephant Reserves in India, State Wise List, Distribution, Importance

September 20, 2025
Elephant Reserves in India

Elephant Reserves in India are important sanctuaries dedicated to the protection and conservation of elephants. Elephants are considered to be the most majestic and intelligent creatures of the animal kingdom. These reserves have been established to safeguard the natural habitats of elephants and ensure their survival amid the growing threats such as habitat loss, human-wildlife conflicts and poaching. In this article, we are going to cover Elephant Reserves, their importance, structure and impact of these Elephant reserves in India. 

Elephant Reserves

Elephant Reserves are special areas created for the conservation and protection of elephants and their habitats. Their main goal is to make sure the long-term survival and well-being of the elephant population is maintained. These reserves protect the natural habitat, migration corridors and feeding ground important for elephant sustenance. They contribute to biodiversity conservation and foster coexistence between elephants and local communities. 

India’s wild elephant population is currently between 25,000 to 29,000 individuals. However, the conservation of male elephants known as tuskers is increasingly precarious with only 1,200 estimated in India. 

Distribution of Elephants in Elephant Reserves

The Elephant Reserves in India have many variations in population. The variation in estimates arise due to differences in counting methods. In 2017, states such as Manipur, Mizoram, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands reported elephant sightings for the first time. Elephants are distributed across 33 Elephant Reserves in 14 states, organized within 10 major elephant landscapes. Collectively, these reserves cover about 80,000 square kilometers, encompassing diverse forest ecosystems across India.

Elephant Reserves List in India

At present, 33 Elephant Reserves are these spread across 14 major elephant states. These elephant reserves often overlap with Tiger Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Reserved Forests, all protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, the Indian Forest Act, 1927, and relevant state laws. The Elephant Reserves in India include: 

  • North Western Landscape
    • Uttarakhand: Shivalik Elephant Reserve
    • Uttar Pradesh: Uttar Pradesh Elephant Reserve
  • East Central Landscape
    • West Bengal: Mayurjharna Elephant Reserve
    • Jharkhand: Singhbhum Elephant Reserve
    • Odisha: Mayurbhanj, Mahanadi, Sambalpur, Baitami, South Orissa Elephant Reserves
    • Chhattisgarh: Lemru; Badalkhol-Tamor Pingla Elephant Reserves
  • Kameng Sonitpur Landscape
    • Arunachal Pradesh: Kameng Elephant Reserve
    • Assam: Sonitpur Elephant Reserve
  • Eastern South Bank Landscape
    • Assam: Dihing Patkai Elephant Reserve
    • Arunachal Pradesh: South Arunachal Elephant Reserve
  • Kaziranga Karbi Anglong Intanki Landscape
    • Assam: Kaziranga Karbi Anglong, Dhansiri Lungding Elephant Reserves
    • Nagaland: Intanki Elephant Reserve
  • North Bengal Greater Manas Landscape
    • Assam: Chirang Ripu Elephant Reserve
    • West Bengal: Eastern Dooars Elephant Reserve
  • Meghalaya Landscape
    • Meghalaya: Garo Hills, Khasi Hills Elephant Reserves
  • Brahmagiri Nilgiri Eastern Ghats Landscape
    • Karnataka: Mysore Elephant Reserve
    • Kerala: Wayanad, Nilambur Elephant Reserves
    • Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore, Nilgiri Elephant Reserves
    • Andhra Pradesh: Rayala Elephant Reserve
  • Annamalai Nelliyampathy High Range Landscape
    • Tamil Nadu: Annamalai Elephant Reserve
    • Kerala: Anamudi Elephant Reserve
  • Periyar Agasthyamalai Landscape
    • Kerala: Periyar Elephant Reserve
    • Tamil Nadu: Srivilliputhur Elephant Reserve

Elephant Reserves Importance and Conservation Efforts

Elephant Reserves in India are important due to many reasons: 

  • Habitat Preservation: They maintain forests, grasslands, and water bodies vital for elephant survival.
  • Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting elephant habitats benefits numerous other species, sustaining ecosystem health.
  • Migration Route Maintenance: Reserves preserve migratory routes, preventing disruptions from human activity or infrastructure.
  • Genetic Diversity: Safeguarding distinct populations helps maintain genetic diversity, ensuring healthier elephants.
  • Conservation of Endangered Species: Overlapping habitats with other endangered species helps protect overall biodiversity.
  • Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation: Providing safe spaces reduces the likelihood of elephants entering human settlements.
  • Sustainable Resource Use: Proper management ensures a balance between human needs and ecosystem conservation.
  • Promotion of Ecotourism: Well-managed reserves offer eco-tourism opportunities, generating revenue for conservation efforts.

Elephant Reserves Functions

Elephant Reserves are responsible for a number of functions. These functions are: 

  1. Habitat Protection: Dedicated areas safeguard forests, grasslands, and water bodies for elephant well-being.
  2. Biodiversity Conservation: Conserving ecosystems benefits numerous plant and animal species.
  3. Migration Route Maintenance: Reserves maintain traditional migratory paths, preventing human-induced disruptions.
  4. Genetic Diversity Conservation: Protecting distinct populations sustains genetic variety within elephants.
  5. Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation: Safe reserves reduce encounters with human settlements.
  6. Sustainable Resource Use: Proper management balances ecological and human needs for long-term viability.

Asian Elephant Protection

Elephant Reserves are important for the conservation of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), an endangered species of iconic significance. They safeguard habitats and make sure that the overall well-being of elephants is maintained. 

  • Habitat Protection: Elephant Reserves provide protection from poaching, habitat loss, and human-elephant conflicts.
  • Elephant Corridors: Elephant Reserves facilitate migration and movement across states while supporting research, education, and community involvement.

Project Elephant

Project Elephant was launched in February 1992, and is a Central Government initiative aimed at the conservation and management of elephants in states with wild populations. The goal of launching Project Elephant were: 

  • Protect habitats and corridors to ensure wild elephant survival.
  • It covers 16 states, including Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
  • Provide technical and financial support to participating states for censuses, training, and conflict mitigation.

Project Elephant Objectives:

The objectives of launching Project Elephant are: 

  • Promote scientific management and anti-poaching measures.
  • Prevent unnatural causes of elephant mortality.
  • Restore ecological habitats and migration routes.
  • Mitigate human-elephant conflicts.
  • Reduce livestock grazing pressures in critical habitats.
  • Support scientific research, public awareness, veterinary care, and eco-development initiatives.

MIKE Program

The MIKE (Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants) Program, launched in South Asia in 2003 under CITES, provides essential data to manage and protect elephant populations effectively, analyzing poaching trends and contributing factors.

Campaign Haathi Mere Saathi

The Campaign Haathi Mere Saathi was launched on May 24, 2011, in collaboration with the Wildlife Trust of India, to raise public awareness about elephant welfare and conservation, fostering stronger bonds between humans and elephants in India.

Asian and African Elephant Differences

Elephants are the largest land mammals divided mainly into two species: Asian Elephants and African Elephants. While both Elephants share some similarities, there are also many differences between them when it comes to physical features, behaviours and habitat. 

The differences in between Asian and African Elephants are: 

Aspect Asian Elephant African Elephant

Scientific Name

Elephas maximus

Loxodonta africana

Size

Smaller, with a shoulder height of 2–3.5 meters

Larger, with a shoulder height of 3–4 meters

Ears

Smaller, rounded ears

Larger, fan-shaped ears

Forehead

Twin-domed forehead with a deep groove in the centre

Sloped, smooth forehead

Tusks

Only males usually have tusks, and some may lack them entirely

Both males and females have tusks

Skin Texture

Smoother skin

Wrinkled skin

Trunk Structure

One finger-like projection at the tip of the trunk

Two finger-like projections at the tip of the trunk

Habitat

Found in forests and grasslands across Asia

Inhabit savannas, forests, and deserts of Africa

Social Structure

Smaller herds led by a matriarch

Larger herds with more complex social structures

Diet

Primarily grazers with occasional browsing

Both grazers and browsers

Population Status

Endangered due to habitat loss and human conflict

Vulnerable due to poaching and habitat
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Elephant Reserves in India FAQs

Q1: Which is the 33rd elephant reserve of India?

Ans: Srivilliputhur Elephant Reserve in Tamil Nadu is the 33rd elephant reserve of India.

Q2: How many elephant reserves are there in India?

Ans: India has a total of 33 elephant reserves.

Q3: Which was the first elephant reserve in India?

Ans: The Periyar Elephant Reserve in Kerala was the first elephant reserve in India.

Q4: Which state has the highest elephant reserve?

Ans: Odisha has the highest number of elephant reserves among Indian states.

Q5: Which is the largest elephant sanctuary in India?

Ans: The Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala is the largest elephant sanctuary in India.

Equatorial Climate, Distribution, Significance, Challenges

September 20, 2025
Equatorial Climate

The equatorial climate is also known as the tropical climate that prevails around the equator between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It is unique due to its persistent high temperature and abundant rainfall all over the year. Due to its uniform warmth, equatorial regions witness less seasonal variation with temperatures usually ranging from 25-30°C. In this article, we are going to cover the Equatorial climate, its distribution, and significance.

Equatorial Climate

The Equatorial Climate receives an annual rainfall often exceeding 2000mm, supporting dense forests and evergreen vegetation. These conditions foster extraordinary biodiversity, hosting rare and endemic plant and animal species. The climate sustains tropical crops like bananas, cacao, coffee and palm oil. Despite its fertility, the equatorial belt is prone to intense thunderstorms and cyclonic disturbances. Deforestation, urban expansion, and unsustainable agriculture poses major threats to fragile ecosystems. Nevertheless, equatorial climates are important for global biodiversity conservation and climate stability.

Equatorial Climate Distribution 

The Equatorial Climate is not continuous but occurs in patches around the equator, primarily within 10°N and 10°S Latitude. 

Africa

  • Countries: Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Cameroon, Uganda, Kenya (west), Rwanda, Burundi, Equatorial Guinea, parts of Tanzania.
  • The Key Region is Congo Basin Rainforest, the world’s second-largest tropical rainforest after the Amazon.
  • The region offers rich biodiversity and vast hydropower potential (Congo River).

South America

  • Countries: Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname.
  • Key Region is the Amazon Basin world’s largest rainforest, spanning 5.5 million sq. km.
  • South America is home to 10% of global species and generates 20% of Earth’s oxygen.

Asia

  • Countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Thailand (south), Myanmar (south), Philippines, Sri Lanka (southwest), southern India (Western Ghats, Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
  • Key Regions are Sumatra, Borneo, New Guinea that are global hotspots of biodiversity.
  • Indonesia is the world’s largest producer of palm oil due to this climate.

Australia

  • Region: Northern Australia, particularly Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, and Torres Strait Islands.
  • Features include Mangroves and unique marsupial-rich ecosystems.

Central America

  • Countries include Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Belize, and parts of Mexico.
  • Rainforests here act as a biodiversity bridge between North and South America.

Equatorial Climate Significance

Equatorial Climate is of the following significance: 

  • Biodiversity Hotspot
    • Equatorial forests have the richest ecosystems on Earth, having over half of all known plant and animal species.
    • Example: Amazon rainforest alone contains 16,000 tree species and 2.5 million insect species.
  • Climate Regulation
    • Equatorial forests act as global carbon sinks, absorbing billions of tonnes of CO₂ annually.
    • They maintain rainfall patterns by releasing water vapor through evapotranspiration.
    • They influence global wind systems like trade winds and monsoons.
  • Agriculture
    • Fertile soils support tropical crops like bananas, cocoa, rubber, coffee, and palm oil.
    • These crops form the backbone of economies in countries like Ghana (cocoa), Brazil (coffee), and Indonesia (palm oil).
  • Ecosystem Services
    • Equatorial forests regulate water cycles, prevent soil erosion, and protect against floods.
    • They provide timber, medicinal plants, fruits, and resins essential for human life.
  • Cultural & Economic Importance
    • Indigenous tribes (e.g., Yanomami in Amazon, Pygmies in Congo) live in close connection with forests.
    • Forest resources contribute to GDP, employment, and exports of tropical nations.
  • Resilience to Climate Change
    • Stable temperatures make equatorial ecosystems climate buffers, but deforestation reduces this resilience.

Equatorial Climate Challenges

Equatorial Climate also has to face many challenges: 

  • Deforestation
    • Logging, mining, and agriculture degrade habitats and reduce carbon absorption.
    • Example: Amazon deforestation threatens biodiversity and global climate balance.
  • Climate Change
    • Rising heat and rainfall variability increase floods and droughts.
    • Example: Congo Basin flooding disrupts ecosystems and communities.
  • Agricultural Expansion
    • Palm oil, soy, and coffee plantations lead to monocultures and soil loss.
    • Example: Southeast Asia’s forests replaced by palm plantations.
  • Habitat Fragmentation
    • Roads, dams, and urban growth break ecological corridors.
    • Example: Borneo’s fragmented forests impact orangutan populations.
  • Invasive Species
    • Alien species disturb native flora and fauna.
    • Example: Madagascar faces invasive plants outcompeting native vegetation.
  • Pollution
    • Industrial waste and agriculture chemicals contaminate rivers and soils.
    • Example: Lake Victoria pollution reducing fish stocks.

Equatorial Climate Conservation Strategy

To protect equatorial ecosystems, stronger conservation and sustainable land-use policies are important.

  • Reforestation, habitat preservation, and regulated agriculture must be prioritized. 
  • Supporting indigenous livelihoods helps reduce dependence on destructive practices.
    International cooperation is very important in mitigating climate change by reducing emissions and encouraging carbon storage projects. 
  • Investment in ecological research, biodiversity conservation, and eco-tourism can provide sustainable alternatives. 
  • Finally, raising awareness and involving local communities is crucial for preserving equatorial regions, which act as the planet’s lungs and a reservoir of life.
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Equatorial Climate FAQs

Q1: What is the climate of equatorial?

Ans: The equatorial climate is hot, humid, and wet throughout the year with heavy rainfall and little seasonal variation.

Q2: Which country has an equatorial climate?

Ans: Countries like Brazil, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Indonesia experience equatorial climate.

Q3: Where is the equatorial climate in Asia?

Ans: In Asia, it is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, southern Philippines, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Q4: Is equatorial climate found in India?

Ans: Yes, it occurs in the Western Ghats and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Q5: Which countries lie on the equator?

Ans: Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, São Tomé and Príncipe, Maldives, and Indonesia.

Grasslands in the World, Components, Classification, Functions

September 20, 2025
Grasslands in the World

The Grasslands Ecosystem is an ecological system that includes grasses with minimal or no tree cover. These ecosystems exist in different parts of the world under different climatic conditions and known by distinct regional names: Veldt in South Africa, Steppes in Europe and Asia, Downs in Australia and Pampas in South America. The Grasslands in India are concentrated in high Himalayan regions, while the remaining areas are presented by steppes and savannas. The Grassland Ecosystems are primarily characterised by non-woody herbaceous vegetation. In this article, we are going to cover Grassland Ecosystems, its classifications, functions and components. 

Grassland Ecosystem

A Grassland Ecosystem refers to a biome where grasses and herbaceous plants dominate, with scattered shrubs and very few trees. Grassland Ecosystems are often described as transitional landscapes that occur in regions where climatic and soil conditions are insufficient for dense forest growth but still supports grasses and shrubs. They act as global food baskets, carbon sinks, and wildlife habitats while supporting millions of people through agriculture and animal husbandry. Despite pressures such as overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change, their preservation is important to maintaining ecological balance. Grasslands, whether known as steppes, pampas, velds, or prairies, remain one of Earth’s most productive and essential ecosystems.

It is often considered a transitional biome that lies between forested and desert regions. Globally, grasslands occupy about 20% of the Earth’s land surface, extending across tropical and temperate zones. Grasslands thrive in areas with moderate to low rainfall, where precipitation is insufficient to support forest growth. Temperatures vary depending on location like tropical grasslands experience warm climates year-round, while temperate grasslands witness hot summers and harsh, snowy winters. 

Grassland Ecosystems Structural Components

Grasslands Ecosystems are structured around two important components : biotic (living organisms) and abiotic (non-living factors)

Biotic Components

Biotic Components include all living organisms like producers, consumers and decomposers. 

  • Producers: Herbaceous grasses and shrubs form the main vegetation and serve as the base of the food chain.
  • Primary Consumers: Herbivores like cows, buffaloes, deer, rabbits, termites, millipedes, and insects such as Dysdercus, Coccinella, and Leptocorisa.
  • Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that prey on herbivores, such as foxes, jackals, lizards, snakes, frogs, and insectivorous birds.
  • Tertiary Consumers: Apex predators like hawks and eagles that feed on secondary consumers.
  • Decomposers: Fungi, moulds, and bacteria (e.g., Penicillium, Aspergillus, Rhizopus) that recycle nutrients into the soil.

Abiotic Components

Non-living components include soil, minerals , water and gases. Important elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur are supplied through air, soil and water. Soil fertility and nutrient availability manage the productivity of grassland ecosystems.

Grasslands Classification

Grasslands can be classified into two types according to their climatic conditions. These classifications include: 

1. Tropical Grasslands

  • These are found on both sides of the equator within the tropics.
  • Rainfall: moderate to low.
  • Vegetation: tall grasses reaching up to 3-4 meters.
  • Soil: nutrient-deficient and less fertile.
  • Examples: Savannahs of Africa, Campos of Brazil, Llanos of Venezuela.
  • Fauna: elephants, giraffes, zebras, deer, cheetahs, and leopards.

2. Temperate Grasslands

  • Temperate Grasslands are found in mid-latitude regions.
  • Precipitation: 25-75 cm, mainly in the form of dew, rain, and snow.
  • Climate: hot summers and extremely cold winters (sometimes below 0°F).
  • Soil: highly fertile, ideal for agriculture.
  • Examples: Pampas (Argentina), Velds (South Africa), Steppe (Asia), Prairie (USA), and Downs (Australia).
  • Vegetation: shorter grasses compared to tropical regions.
  • Fauna: bison, pronghorns, prairie dogs, and predators such as wolves and coyotes.

Grassland Ecosystem Functions

Grassland Ecosystem has the following functions: 

  • Biodiversity Support: Provides habitats for diverse flora and fauna.
  • Carbon Storage: Stores significant carbon in vegetation and soil.
  • Water Filtration: Improves groundwater quality.
  • Erosion Control: Grass roots bind soil and help prevent  erosion.
  • Nutrient Cycling: Facilitate the recycling of vital minerals.
  • Forage Production: Serves as grazing land for livestock.
  • Wildlife Habitat: Home to large herbivores and predators.
  • Recreation: Used for tourism, hiking, and birdwatching.
  • Carbon Sequestration: Help combat climate change.
  • Cultural Value: Integral to indigenous and pastoral communities.

Flora and Fauna in Grasslands

The Grassland Ecosystem has the following flora and fauna: 

Flora

  • Dominated by wild grasses, herbs, and scattered shrubs.
  • Semi-natural grasslands may include oak, birch, hazel, and hawthorn.
  • Perennial grasses stabilize soil and form thick root mats.
  • In India, hola meadows are found in South Indian hill slopes adjoining evergreen forests.

Fauna

  • Grasslands support the world’s largest land animals.
  • Examples: lions, cheetahs, elephants, giraffes, black rhinos, and bison.
  • In India, species include the one-horned rhinoceros, deer, antelope, and numerous bird species.
  • Soil-dwelling invertebrates enrich biodiversity and aid decomposition.

Grasslands Economic Significance

Grasslands have the following Economic Significance: 

  • Livestock Grazing: Primary source of fodder for cattle, sheep, and goats.
  • Thatching Material: Grass is used for roofing and insulation in rural areas.
  • Fuelwood: Shrubs and thorny bushes provide firewood.
  • Pollination & Pest Control: Insects and predators regulate agricultural ecosystems.
  • Agriculture: Fertile temperate grasslands are global breadbaskets (wheat, barley, maize).
  • Rural Economy: Grasslands support the livelihoods of pastoral communities.

Grasslands in India

India has many types of Grasslands:

Grassland Type Region Features

Sub-Himalayan Grasslands

Terai belt (J&K to Arunachal Pradesh)

Tall, dense grasses with scattered trees.

Semi-Arid Grasslands

Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Delhi, Western UP

Open, sparse grasses with shrubs.

Dry Sub-Humid Grasslands

Peninsular India (except Nilgiris)

Important for crops like wheat and barley.

Montane Grasslands

Himalayas, NE India

Found at high altitudes, e.g., Bugyals in Uttarakhand, Khajjiar in Himachal, Dzukou Valley in Nagaland.

Tropical Savannas

Rajasthan, Deccan Plateau

Grass-dominated, interspersed with scrub forests.

Wet Grasslands

Waterlogged plains of North India

Tall, semi-aquatic grasses, e.g., Phumdis of Manipur.

Global Names of Grasslands

Grasslands across the world are known by different names:

Name Region Economic Activity

Steppes

Europe & Asia

Wheat granaries

Prairies

North America

Ranching, dairy, alfalfa cultivation

Pampas

South America (Argentina)

Wheat and beef production

Llanos & Cerrados

South America (Venezuela, Brazil)

Ranching, agriculture

Savannahs & Velds

Africa

Pastoralism

Downs & Canterbury Plains

Australia & New Zealand

Sheep rearing, wool production

Puszta

Hungary

Wheat and sugar beet cultivation
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Grasslands in the World FAQs

Q1: What is the grassland ecosystem?

Ans: A grassland ecosystem is a terrestrial ecosystem dominated by grasses, with few trees, supporting diverse flora and fauna.

Q2: What is the definition of a grassland?

Ans: A grassland is a large open area of land covered mainly with grasses, receiving moderate rainfall and supporting grazing animals.

Q3: What is the grassland ecosystem in India?

Ans: In India, grassland ecosystems include savannas, alpine meadows, and tropical grasslands like those in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and the Himalayan regions.

Q4: What are the 4 types of ecosystems?

Ans: The four main types of ecosystems are terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and desert ecosystems.

Q5: What are the top 3 ecosystems?

Ans: The top three ecosystems are forest, grassland, and aquatic ecosystems.

Tropical Evergreen Forests, Types, Characteristics, Flora, Fauna

September 20, 2025
Tropical Evergreen Forests

Tropical Evergreen Forests are an important component of India’s natural vegetation. They exist in regions receiving more than 200 cm of annual rainfall. In India, these forests are located in the Western Ghats, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands along with the peninsular coastline bordering the Arabian Sea and the larger Assam Region of the northeast. Odisha also has a few isolated evergreen patches. In this article, we are going to cover Tropical Evergreen Forests, its characteristics, location and its types.

Tropical Evergreen Forests

Tropical Evergreen Forests are also called tropical rainforests or evergreen forests that are dense, lush and predominantly green ecosystems. These ecosystems sustain year-round due to heavy rainfall and uniform temperature. Characterised by tall, closely spaced trees Tropical Evergreen Forests form a continuous canopy, creating shade and humid environments below. The vegetation remains evergreen and retains its leaves throughout the year, giving rise to a perpetual green landscape. 

Tropical Evergreen Forests Characteristics

The Tropical Evergreen Forests are evergreen in nature and there is no drought in this region. These trees are tall and hardwood and promote greenery on the planet. These characteristics include:

  • Trees are evergreen due to the absence of prolonged drought.
  • Mostly tall, hardwood species forming dense, multi-layered forests.
  • Cover nearly 7% of Earth’s surface, largely around the equatorial belt.
  • Sparse undergrowth and limited clearings.
  • Minimal litter accumulation due to rapid decomposition.
  • Essential for ecological balance and biodiversity preservation.
  • Support harmonious coexistence of diverse plant and animal life.

Tropical Evergreen Forests Location in India 

The Tropical Evergreen Forests occur in warm, humid zones with over 250 cm of annual rainfall, a short dry season and average temperature above 22°C. Tropical Evergreen Forests in India are concentrated on the eastern and western slopes of the Western Ghats and in Northeastern states. States and regions having having a Tropical Evergreen Forests cover are: 

  • Kerala
  • Karnataka
  • West Bengal
  • Andaman and Nicobar Islands
  • Maharashtra
  • Tripura
  • Meghalaya
  • Tamil Nadu
  • Assam
  • Arunachal Pradesh
  • Nagaland

Tropical Evergreen Forests Types in India 

There are three Tropical Evergreen Forests Types in India. These are: 

1. Western Ghats Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests

  • Western Ghats Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests are found along the western slopes of the Western Ghats in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
  • Climatic Conditions: Receive 250–400 cm of annual rainfall with consistently high humidity and temperatures around 25–27°C.
  • Vegetation:
    • Dominated by tall trees reaching 45–60 meters in height.
    • Common species: Rosewood, Mahogany, Ebony, Ironwood, Bamboos, and Canes.
    • Dense canopy creates layered vegetation, from emergent trees to shrubs and ground flora.
  • Wildlife:
    • Rich in biodiversity with elephants, tigers, leopards, lion-tailed macaques, and Malabar civet.
    • Birds include the Malabar hornbill and great Indian hornbill.

  • The forests are a biodiversity hotspot under the UNESCO Western Ghats World Heritage Site.

2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests

  • Andaman and Nicobar Islands Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests are spread across the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.
  • Climatic Conditions: Receive over 300 cm rainfall annually with minimal dry spells due to maritime influence.
  • Vegetation:
    • Trees like Dipterocarpus grandiflorus, Dipterocarpus kerrii, Padauk, and Andaman Redwood dominate.
    • Presence of mangroves and littoral forests along the coast.
    • Forests are multi-tiered with abundant epiphytes, orchids, and lianas.
  • Wildlife:
    • Home to endemic species such as the Andaman wild pig, Nicobar megapode, and saltwater crocodiles.
    • Birds include the Andaman wood pigeon and Nicobar hornbill.
  • Considered a unique ecological region, as many species here are not found on mainland India.

3. Northeast India Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests

  • Northeast India Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests are found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, and Mizoram.
  • Climatic Conditions: Receive 200-400 cm rainfall annually, especially during the monsoon.
  • Vegetation:
    • Species include Dipterocarpus macrocarpus, Shorea robusta (Sal), Hollong, Hollock, and Gomari.
    • Dense undergrowth with ferns, bamboo, and orchids.
    • Canopy height ranges from 40-50 meters.
  • Wildlife:
    • Includes Asian elephants, one-horned rhinoceros, clouded leopards, hoolock gibbons, and hornbills.
    • Rich in butterflies and reptiles due to the humid climate.
  • These forests form part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot and play a crucial role in maintaining monsoon systems.

Tropical Evergreen Forests Flora and Fauna in India 

The tropical evergreen forests of India have a variety of flora and fauna. Some of the important tree species include Rosewood, Mahogany, Aini, and Ebony. In Kerala, significant species such as White Cedar (Mesa), Jamun, and Canes are found, while in the Assam forests, common species include Gurjan, Jamun, Agar, and Bamboo.

The fauna of these forests is equally diverse. Typical bird species include owls, cardinals, and hawks, while mammals such as deer, raccoons, and possums are commonly observed. Within India, tropical evergreen forests are located in Karnataka and Kerala, with the Western Ghats being the primary region where they survive.

Adaptations of Plants in Tropical Evergreen Forests

Plants in tropical evergreen forests have evolved remarkable adaptations to survive in nutrient-poor rainforest soils. Since roots cannot penetrate deeper layers, many tall trees develop buttress roots, which may rise up to 30 feet high before merging into the trunk. These roots provide extra stability and expand the surface area for gaseous exchange, allowing trees to absorb more carbon dioxide and release oxygen efficiently.

Other adaptations include:

  • Rough and thick bark to withstand humidity.
  • Discontinuous canopy layers, resulting in moderate light penetration.
  • Reduced species richness in some areas compared to equatorial rainforests.

Notable species include White Cedar, Hollock, and Kail, while in Kerala, Aini and Bamboo dominate. In Northeastern India, significant trees are White Cedar, Indian Chestnut, Champa, and Mango.

Tropical Evergreen and Deciduous Forests Difference 

Tropical Evergreen Forests and Deciduous Forests have the following differences: 

Feature Tropical Evergreen Forests Deciduous Forests

Climate

High rainfall and uniform temperature

Distinct wet and dry seasons

Vegetation

Dense, tall, evergreen canopy

Less dense, mixed tall and short trees

Leaf Shedding

None, remain green year-round

Shed leaves during dry season

Biodiversity

Very high

Moderate

Epiphytes & Lianas

Abundant

Relatively rare

Soil

Nutrient-poor due to rapid recycling

Richer from leaf litter

Growth Pattern

Continuous year-round

Seasonal growth cycles

Examples

Amazon, Western Ghats, SE Asia

Central India, parts of Africa
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Tropical Evergreen Forests FAQs

Q1: What is the tropical evergreen forest?

Ans: Tropical evergreen forests are dense, green, multi-layered forests found in high rainfall and warm regions, remaining lush throughout the year.

Q2: What are the 4 types of evergreen forests?

Ans: The four types are tropical evergreen, tropical semi-evergreen, temperate evergreen, and Mediterranean evergreen forests.

Q3: Where is the evergreen forest found in India?

Ans: In India, evergreen forests are mainly found in the Western Ghats, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Northeastern states, and parts of Odisha.

Q4: Which state has tropical evergreen forest?

Ans: States like Kerala, Karnataka, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu have significant tropical evergreen forests.

Q5: Which is the biggest evergreen forest in the world?

Ans: The Amazon Rainforest in South America is the largest tropical evergreen forest in the world.

Landforms of the Earth, Types, Significance, Process

September 20, 2025
Landforms of the Earth

Landforms of the Earth are the natural physical features found on the Earth’s surface, shaped over time by geomorphic processes such as tectonic movements, weathering, erosion, and deposition. They include a wide variety of features, from mountains, valleys, and plateaus to plains, deserts, and coastal formations. Landforms of the Earth not only reflect the geological history of the planet but also influence climate, biodiversity, resource availability, and patterns of human settlement. Studying them is essential for understanding Earth’s evolution, managing natural resources, and planning sustainable development.

Landforms of the Earth

Landforms of the Earth are the natural physical features of the Earth’s surface, shaped by the continuous interaction of internal and external forces. They range from vast plains, high mountain ranges, and extensive plateaus to smaller features like valleys, sand dunes, and coastal formations. Even the ocean floor hosts striking landforms such as ridges, trenches, and seamounts.

Endogenic forces, including tectonic plate movements and volcanic activity, create primary landforms like mountains, rift valleys, and volcanic islands. On the other hand, exogenic processes such as weathering, erosion, and deposition modify these features into secondary landforms like deltas, beaches, floodplains, and canyons.

Landforms directly influence climate, ecosystems, and human life. They determine soil fertility, water flow, vegetation cover, and settlement patterns, making them central to agriculture, infrastructure, and resource use. 

Landforms of the Earth Types

Landforms are classified based on their origin, structure, and the processes that shape them. Broadly, they can be grouped into the following categories:

Landforms of the Earth Types

Category

Types

Examples

Major Landforms

Mountains, Plateaus, Plains

Himalayas, Deccan Plateau (India), Great Plains (USA)

Minor Landforms

Hills, Valleys, Canyons

Aravalli Hills (India), Rhine Valley (Europe), Grand Canyon (USA)

Fluvial Landforms (River Action)

Erosional: V-shaped valleys, waterfalls, gorges Depositional: Floodplains, deltas, levees

Nile Delta, Mississippi Floodplains

Aeolian Landforms (Wind Action)

Erosional: Deflation hollows, yardangs Depositional: Sand dunes, loess deposits

Thar Desert dunes, Chinese Loess Plateau

Glacial Landforms (Ice Action)

Erosional: Cirques, U-shaped valleys, fjords Depositional: Moraines, drumlins, eskers

Fjords of Norway, Moraines in the Alps

Coastal Landforms (Wave Action)

Erosional: Sea cliffs, arches, stacks Depositional: Beaches, spits, barrier islands

White Cliffs of Dover (UK), Long Beach (USA)

Karst Landforms (Solution Action)

Sinkholes, caves, limestone pavements

Carlsbad Caverns (USA), Chocolate Hills (Philippines)

Volcanic Landforms

Extrusive: Lava plateaus, volcanic cones Intrusive: Batholiths, dykes

Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), Deccan Traps (India), Sierra Nevada Batholiths

Man-Made Landforms

Terraces, dams, mines

Tehri Dam (India), Bingham Canyon Mine (USA)

Landforms of the Earth Significance

Landforms of the Earth are significant because they shape the environment, economy, and human life in multiple ways. 

  • They create diverse habitats that support a wide range of plant and animal species, and they influence climate by acting as barriers to winds and rainfall or by moderating temperatures in plains and plateaus. 
  • Fertile river valleys and plains provide the foundation for agriculture, while plateaus and flatlands serve as stable grounds for cities and infrastructure. Mountains and plateaus are rich in minerals, coal, and ores, while rivers and lakes supply vital water resources for drinking, farming, and hydropower. 
  • Landforms also contribute to economic activities, tourism thrives around unique landscapes like the Grand Canyon or Mount Everest, while forestry and fishing are supported by coastal and forested regions. 
  • Studying landforms helps in predicting and managing natural hazards such as floods, landslides, and earthquakes. 
  • Beyond practical uses, they serve as natural laboratories for scientific study, hold cultural and spiritual significance for many communities, and enhance the bond between humans and nature.

Landforms of the Earth Process

Landforms of the Earth are shaped by a combination of internal and external processes that continuously modify the Earth’s surface. These geomorphic processes range from tectonic activity deep within the Earth to surface actions like weathering, erosion, and deposition. To understand them clearly, the following table summarizes the key processes, their mechanisms, and the landforms they produce.

Landforms of the Earth Process

Process Type

Sub-Process

Description

Examples of Resulting Landforms

Endogenic Processes (Internal forces)

Folding

Compression of Earth’s crust forms ridges and mountains.

Himalayas, Alps

Faulting

Movement of crustal blocks along fractures creates rift valleys or escarpments.

East African Rift, Narmada Rift Valley

Volcanism

Eruption of magma forms volcanic cones and lava plateaus.

Mount Fuji, Deccan Plateau

Isostatic Movements

Crust adjusts due to loading/unloading (e.g., glaciers).

Glacial rebound in Scandinavia

Exogenic Processes (External forces)

Weathering

Breakdown of rocks by physical, chemical, or biological means.

Limestone caves (chemical), frost-shattered rocks (physical)

Fluvial Processes

Rivers erode, transport, and deposit sediments.

Deltas (Nile Delta), floodplains, V-shaped valleys

Aeolian Processes

Wind action shapes landscapes in arid regions.

Sand dunes, yardangs, loess deposits

Glacial Processes

Ice erodes and deposits material, carving landscapes.

U-shaped valleys, fjords, moraines

Marine Processes

Waves erode and deposit material along coasts.

Sea cliffs, beaches, spits

Mass Wasting

Downslope movement of material due to gravity.

Landslides, talus slopes, debris flows

Biological & Human Influence

Biological Processes

Living organisms form or modify landforms.

Coral reefs, mangroves

Human Activities

Mining, deforestation, and construction reshape landscapes.

Terraces, reservoirs, mines
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Landforms of the Earth FAQs

Q1: What are the 5 landforms of the earth?

Ans: Mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, and deserts are the five basic landforms.

Q2: What are the main major landforms?

Ans: The three major landforms are mountains, plateaus, and plains.

Q3: What are the 5 types of landforms class 6 answer?

Ans: Mountains, plateaus, plains, hills, and valleys are the five types.

Q4: What are the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd order landforms?

Ans: 1st: Continents and oceans. 2nd: Mountains, plateaus, plains. 3rd: Valleys, dunes, deltas, beaches.

Q5: How many landforms are there on Earth?

Ans: There are countless landforms, but geographers group them into major categories like mountains, plateaus, plains, hills, valleys, deserts, and coastal forms.

Sanyasi Revolt, History, Causes, Leaders, Impacts, Outcomes

September 20, 2025
Sanyasi Revolt

The Sanyasi Revolt was one of the earliest uprisings against British colonial rule in Bengal, occurring between 1770 and 1820. It was led primarily by Hindu ascetics, known as sanyasis, along with some Muslim fakirs, who resisted the oppressive taxation and economic exploitation imposed by the British East India Company following the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Bengal Famine of 1770. This revolt marked one of the first organized movements of resistance against British authority in India.

Sanyasi Revolt

The Sanyasi Revolt was one of the earliest uprisings against British rule in India, taking place in Bengal during the late 18th century. It was led by Hindu monks known as Sanyasis, along with Muslim fakirs and local peasants, who protested against oppressive taxes and harsh policies imposed by the British. While it was not a highly organized political movement like the Revolt of 1857, it marked an early expression of Indian resistance.

The term “Sanyasi” refers to ascetics or monks who renounce worldly life. Many of these Sanyasis, primarily from northern India, traveled across Bengal collecting alms. When British authorities imposed strict controls and heavy taxation, the Sanyasis struggled to survive, prompting their resistance, which soon escalated into a widespread revolt.

Sanyasi Rebellion History

The Sanyasi Rebellion began around 1763 and continued into the early 1800s, primarily in Bengal and parts of North Bihar. The revolt gained momentum after the Battle of Buxar in 1764, when the British East India Company secured full control over Bengal. Following this, the British intensified revenue collection through local zamindars and imposed strict regulations on the population.

Before British rule, Sanyasis visited temples and collected religious offerings from landlords and farmers. However, under British policies, the heavy taxation and restrictions compounded the suffering caused by the Bengal famine of 1770, which claimed millions of lives. When the British barred Sanyasis from collecting alms and imprisoned many, the ascetics decided to resist, escalating their protests into a full-fledged revolt.

The Sanyasi Revolt is often described as both semi-religious and semi-political. While the rebels were not fighting for national independence, their opposition to economic exploitation laid the groundwork for future uprisings against colonial rule in India.

Sanyasi Revolt Causes

Several factors triggered the Sanyasi Revolt, primarily economic, religious, and political. The main causes include:

  • Economic Exploitation: The British imposed heavy taxes on farmers and zamindars. Many peasants could not meet these demands and lost their lands. Even religious groups like the Sanyasis were forced to pay taxes or were prohibited from collecting donations.
  • Famine of 1770: This catastrophic famine, one of the deadliest in Indian history, claimed nearly 10 million lives. Despite the widespread suffering, the British did not reduce taxes, which fueled resentment among the population.
  • Religious Restrictions: The British viewed Sanyasis with suspicion, fearing that large gatherings of monks could threaten their authority. Consequently, they restricted the movement of Sanyasis and arrested many.
  • Loss of Livelihood: Sanyasis relied on traveling and collecting alms for survival. British interference disrupted their traditional way of life, leaving them without a source of sustenance.
  • Local Support: Many peasants, small landlords, and displaced individuals joined the Sanyasis. This local backing strengthened the revolt and enabled it to spread across various districts.

Sanyasi Revolt Major Events

The Sanyasi Revolt was not a single event but a prolonged series of uprisings across Bengal and parts of Bihar, spanning nearly four decades. Key events include:

  • Early Clashes (1763-1770): The first signs of rebellion appeared in 1763 when Sanyasis clashed with Company officials. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, their activities intensified, including looting treasuries and government offices.
  • Attacks in Rangpur and Dinajpur (1770s): These districts saw some of the most significant Sanyasi attacks, targeting British establishments, tax collectors, and collaborators.
  • Battle of 1771: In a major confrontation, the British army killed over 150 Sanyasis. This incident turned many locals against the Company and inspired additional Sanyasis to join the movement.
  • Skirmishes until the 1800s: The revolt lacked a central leader or organized army. Sanyasis operated in small groups, employing guerrilla tactics, striking suddenly and retreating into forests.

Sanyasi Revolt Leaders

The Sanyasi Revolt did not have a single central leader, but numerous local figures guided the uprising across different regions. Some prominent names recorded in British documents and local legends include:

  • Pandit Bhabani Charan Pathak: Also spelled Bhawani Sharan Pathak or Bhavanicharan Pathak, he was a Bhumihar from Jaso village in Buxar and is often regarded as the principal hero of the rebellion.
  • Manju Shah Fakir: A Muslim fakir (Sufi saint) who collaborated with Hindu Sanyasis, demonstrating that the revolt transcended religious boundaries.
  • Debi Chaudhurani: A legendary woman leader whose involvement highlights the role of women in early resistance against British rule.
  • Musa Shah and Chirag Ali: Other notable participants who played significant roles in the revolt.

Sanyasi Revolt Impact

The Sanyasi Revolt, though it did not succeed in overthrowing British rule, had a lasting impact on Indian society and future resistance movements.

  • Raised Consciousness: The revolt demonstrated that ordinary people including monks and farmers could rise against colonial exploitation.
  • Unity Among Communities: Hindu and Muslim ascetics joined forces, showing that solidarity across religion and caste was possible.
  • Inspiration for Literature: The rebellion influenced notable works such as Anandamath by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, which introduced the iconic song Vande Mataram.
  • Early Sign of Resistance: It made clear that British authority was not fully accepted, paving the way for larger uprisings like the Revolt of 1857.
  • Changed British Policy: The colonial administration recognised that religious groups could pose political threats, leading to tighter controls over religious movements in Bengal and North India.

Sanyasi Revolt Outcomes

The Sanyasi Revolt was ultimately suppressed by the British, but its legacy endured.

  • Suppression by British Army: By 1800, the revolt was crushed through military action, arrests, and legal measures.
  • Inspired Later Revolts: The rebellion served as an inspiration for subsequent uprisings, including the Fakir Rebellion and various tribal revolts in eastern India.

Symbol of Resistance: Although it did not achieve victory, the revolt became a lasting symbol of protest against injustice and colonial exploitation.

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Sanyasi Revolt FAQs

Q1: Who started the Sanyasi revolt?

Ans: The Sanyasi Revolt was led by Sanyasis and Fakirs in Bengal and Bihar in protest against British revenue policies.

Q2: What was the Sanyasi rebellion of 1763?

Ans: It was a series of uprisings by Hindu ascetics against the East India Company’s oppressive taxation and restrictions on pilgrimage and trade.

Q3: Where was the chief centre of the Sanyasi revolt started in 1770?

Ans: The revolt mainly concentrated around Bengal’s countryside, especially in Murshidabad, Dinajpur, and surrounding regions.

Q4: Who suppressed the Sanyasi revolt?

Ans: The revolt was suppressed by the East India Company using armed forces and local collaborators to restore control.

Q5: Was the Sanyasi Revolt successful?

Ans: No, the revolt was not successful in overthrowing British authority but highlighted local resentment and set the stage for later uprisings.

INS Rajali

September 20, 2025
INS Rajali

INS Rajali Latest News

The Indian Navy’s Eastern Naval Command recently hosted a two-day seminar on long-range maritime reconnaissance (LRMR) at INS Rajali, Arakkonam, underscoring India’s growing maritime responsibilities and surveillance capabilities.

About INS Rajali

  • It is an Indian Naval Air Station located near Arakkonam in Tamil Nadu.
  • It was commissioned on March 11, 1992. 
  • It was named as 'Rajali', named after an aggressive bird of the Hawk family, predominant in the Tamil Nadu coastal belt. 
  • The air station is spread over 2,200 acres and is located 80 km west of Chennai.
  • INS Rajali is the most modern and largest Naval Air Station, with a garrison strength of 4,700 personnel.
  • It contributes towards two very distinct tasks -Operations and Training.
  • It operates under the Eastern Naval Command of the Indian Navy and has the longest military runway in Asia.
  • It is home to the navy's INAS 312 squadron which has been at the forefront of maritime reconnaissance and anti-submarine warfare with the P8I. 
  • Apart from hosting the P8I fleet, it also operates MQ-9B Sea Guardian drones, providing a technological edge for high-endurance operations in the vast expanses of the Indian Ocean.
  • INS Rajali is also home to the navy's Helicopter Training School.

Source: DEF

INS Rajali FAQs

Q1: What is INS Rajali?

Ans: It is an Indian Naval Air Station.

Q2: INS Rajali is located in which Indian state?

Ans: Tamil Nadu

Q3: When was INS Rajali commissioned?

Ans: It was commissioned on March 11, 1992.

Q4: INS Rajali operates under which Naval Command?

Ans: It operates under the Eastern Naval Command of the Indian Navy.

Registered Unrecognised Political Party

September 20, 2025
Registered Unrecognised Political Party

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties Latest News

The Election Commission of India (ECI) recently de-listed a total of 474 more Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPP) for flouting norms, including not contesting elections in the last six years.

About Registered Unrecognised Political Parties

  • These are the parties which are either newly registered parties or those which have not secured enough percentage of votes in the assembly or general elections to become a state party, or those which have never contested elections since being registered.
  • Despite not having official recognition, RUPPs enjoy certain benefits:
    • Tax exemption under Section 13A of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
    • Eligibility for common poll symbols during elections. Common symbols are provided to RUPPs based upon an undertaking that they would put up “at least 5% of total candidates with regard to said Legislative Assembly election of a State”.
    • Permission to nominate up to 20 ‘star campaigners’ for canvassing.
  • They are, however, required to:
    • Contest elections periodically.
    • File annual audit accounts and contribution reports.
    • Disclose donations exceeding Rs. 20,000, and ensure that no donations above Rs. 2,000 are accepted in cash.

What are Registered Parties?

  • Political parties in the country are registered with the ECI under the provisions of Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act (RPA) 1951. 
  • There are many benefits of registering a party. 
    • Firstly, the RPA allows political parties to accept contributions voluntarily offered to it by any person or company other than a government company.
    • Apart from this, candidates of registered parties get preference in allotment of election symbols. Other candidates are identified as independents and do not get preference in symbol allocation.
    • Tax exemption for donations received under Section 13A of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
  • Guidelines for registration of Political Parties mention that if the party does not contest elections continuously for 6 years, the party shall be taken off the list of registered parties.
  • Registered political parties, in course of time, can get recognition as a state party or national party subject to the fulfilment of the conditions prescribed by the EC in the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968, as amended from time to time.
  • Recognised political parties get to reserve a symbol and use it exclusively, whereas unrecognised parties have to choose from a list of free symbols. 
  • Recognition also comes with other benefits, such as free broadcast facilities over Doordarshan and All India Radio, more allowances for campaign expenditure, and free copies of electoral rolls before elections.

Conditions for Recognition as a State Party

  • A political party shall be treated as a recognised political party in a state if it fulfils any of the following conditions
    • The party has to win 3 percent of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the state in the General Election.
    • The party has to win one Lok sabha seat for every 25 Lok Sabha seats allotted for the state in the General Election.
    • The party has to secure a minimum of 6 percent of votes in a state, and in addition it has won one Lok Sabha or two Legislative Assembly seats in elections.
    • The party has to secure 8 percent of votes in a state in the General Election to Lok Sabha or Legislative Assembly.

Conditions for Recognition as a National Party

  • A political party shall be treated as a national party if it fulfils any of the following conditions
    • Secure at least 6 percent of votes polled in four or more states in the Lok Sabha or Assembly elections, and, in addition, it has at least four members in the Lok Sabha.
    • It also has to have at least 2 percent of the total Lok Sabha seats and its candidates come from not less than three states.
    • It is recognised as a state party in at least four states.
  • Both national and state parties have to fulfil these conditions for all subsequent Lok Sabha or state elections. Else, they lose their status.

Source: TH

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties FAQs

Q1: Under which Act are political parties in India registered?

Ans: Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act (RPA) 1951

Q2: How many ‘star campaigners’ can a Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPP) nominate during elections?

Ans: 20 ‘star campaigners

Q3: What is the maximum amount that can be accepted by political parties as cash donations from a single donor?

Ans: Rs. 2,000

Q4: If a registered political party does not contest elections continuously for how many years, it can be deregistered?

Ans: 6 years

Aflatoxin

September 20, 2025
Aflatoxins

Aflatoxin Latest News

Exporters are disputing Indonesia’s delayed notification of aflatoxins in groundnut shipments from India.

About Aflatoxin

  • Aflatoxins are a toxic chemical (a mycotoxin) produced by fungi.
  • The mould-like fungi that produce aflatoxins belong to a large group called Aspergillus (It is produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus fungi).
  • Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus thrive mainly in agricultural crops but also in soils, rotting food and compost.
  • The fungi emerge as spores and form networks of microscopic filaments that can grow on products such as grains and nuts.
  • These fungi contaminate groundnuts in warm, humid conditions.
  • It can occur in foods such as groundnuts, tree nuts, maize, rice, figs and other dried foods, spices, crude vegetable oils and cocoa beans, as a result of fungal contamination before and after harvest.
  • Health Impacts: This toxin is reported to be genotoxic, carcinogenic, and pose risks to human and animal health.

How are people Exposed to Aflatoxins?

  • People can be exposed to aflatoxins by eating contaminated plant products (such as peanuts) or by consuming meat or dairy products from animals that ate contaminated feed. 
  • Farmers and other agricultural workers may be exposed by inhaling dust generated during the handling and processing of contaminated crops and feeds.

Source: TH

Aflatoxin FAQs

Q1: Which foods contain aflatoxins?

Ans: Aflatoxins can occur in foods such as groundnuts, tree nuts, maize, rice, figs and other dried foods, spices, crude vegetable oils and cocoa bean.

Q2: What is the primary health risk associated with aflatoxin exposure?

Ans: Liver cancer

Q3: Which of the following fungi is known to produce aflatoxin?

Ans: Aspergillus

Yellow-Crested Cockatoos

September 20, 2025
Yellow-Crested Cockatoos

Yellow-Crested Cockatoos Latest News

Yellow-crested cockatoos in Hong Kong are losing natural nesting due to typhoons and tree trimming and conservationists installing artificial nest boxes that mimic natural nests of these birds.

About Yellow-Crested Cockatoos

  • The Yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) is a medium-sized cockatoo with a retractile yellow or orange crest.
  • Appearance: It usually has white plumage, and on its head is a yellow crest that curves forwards.
  • Habitat: This cockatoo inhabits forest, forest edge, scrub and cultivated areas from sea-level up to about 1500 meters.
  • Distribution: It is native to East Timor and Indonesia's islands of Sulawesi and the Lesser Sundas. 
  • It is also introduced in Hong Kong developed from caged birds that have been released.
  • Food: It is an omnivorous feeder, with a diet that consists primarily of seeds, fruits, nuts, and berries. It is also known to feed on the occasional insect, small reptiles, and roots,
  • Social behavior: They are monogamous birds, and pairs stay together for life. 
  • They are very gregarious animals and learn quickly to mimic.
  • Breeding Season: Breeding typically occurs in September to May 
  • Threats: The main threats to the Yellow-crested cockatoo are illegal pet trade, habitat loss and climate change (rising temperatures dry out forests, leaving them more vulnerable to fires)
  • Conservation Status:  IUCN: Critically Endangered

Source: TH

Yellow-Crested Cockatoos FAQs

Q1: Where are yellow crested cockatoos found?

Ans: Indonesia and Hong Kong

Q2: What is the scientific name of the Yellow-crested Cockatoo?

Ans: Cacatua sulphurea

Q3: What kind of diet do Yellow-crested Cockatoos have?

Ans: It is primarily herbivores, eating seeds, fruits, and vegetation.

Gulf of Finland

September 20, 2025
Gulf of Finland

Gulf of Finland Latest News

Three Russian MiG-31 fighter jets violated the airspace of NATO member Estonia over the Gulf of Finland recently and remained there for 12 minutes.

About Gulf of Finland

  • It is the easternmost extension of the Baltic Sea, located in Northern Europe.
  • It covers an area of 30,000 sq.km. It is one of the largest bodies of brackish water in the world.
  • The gulf extends for 400 km from east to west but only 19 to 130 km from north to south.
  • It is bordered by Finland in the north, Russia in the east, and Estonia in the south.
  • Both the Finnish capital city, Helsinki, and the Estonian capital, Tallinn, are located right on the shores of the Gulf of Finland. 
  • At the very eastern end of the gulf is the Russian city of St. Petersburg.
  • The gulf is relatively shallow with an estimated average depth of 38 m.
  • Of low salinity (six parts per thousand), the gulf freezes over for three to five months in winter. 
  • It receives the Neva and Narva rivers and the Saimaa Canal.
  • The gulf faces a humid continental climate with hot summers and relatively harsh winters. 
  • The gulf contains numerous banks, skerries and islands.
  • The largest include Kotlin Island with the city of Kronstadt (population 42,800), Beryozovye Islands, Lisiy Island, Maly Vysotsky Island, and many others.

Source: TH

Gulf of Finland FAQs

Q1: The Gulf of Finland is the easternmost extension of which sea?

Ans: It is the easternmost extension of the Baltic Sea.

Q2: Which countries border the Gulf of Finland?

Ans: Finland, Russia, Estonia

Q3: Which two capital cities are located on the shores of the Gulf of Finland?

Ans: Helsinki and Tallinn

Q4: The Russian city located at the eastern end of the Gulf of Finland is?

Ans: St. Petersburg

Kurmi Community

September 20, 2025
Kurmi Community

Kurmi Community Latest News

Defying prohibitory orders, Kurmis began their rail blockade at various stations in Jharkhand recently to press demand for a ST status for the community and inclusion of the Kurmali language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

About Kurmi Community

  • Kurmis, also known as Kunbi, are a Hindu farming caste in India and Nepal. 
  • The term "Kurmi" is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word "Krishi," which means agriculture.
  • They are mostly found in the lower regions of the Indo-Gangetic plains, especially southern regions of Awadh, eastern Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar.
  • It is believed that the Kurmis were descendants of ancient Kshatriya warriors who practiced agriculture. 
  • There are several sub-groups within the Kurmi caste called gotras. Some common Kurmi gotras include Chandel, Chauhan, Solanki, Tomar, Baghel and Sengar. 
  • The Kurmis came to be known for their exceptional work ethic, superior tillage and manuring, and gender-neutral culture, bringing praise from Mughal and British administrators alike.
  • The Kurmali language, primarily spoken by the Kurmi community in Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha, is part of the Indo-Aryan language family.
  • Nowadays, Kurmis are placed in the Other Backward Class (OBC) category in most parts of India. 
  • However, Kurmis tend to believe that they have tribal roots and have long been demanding Scheduled Tribe (ST) status for their community and inclusion of the Kurmali language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

Source: ETVB

Kurmi Community FAQs

Q1: Kurmis are primarily associated with which traditional occupation?

Ans: Agriculture

Q2: In which regions are Kurmis predominantly found?

Ans: Southern Awadh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Bihar.

Q3: The Kurmis are believed to be descendants of which group?

Ans: It is believed that the Kurmis were descendants of ancient Kshatriya warriors who practiced agriculture.

Q4: The Kurmali language, spoken by the Kurmi community, belongs to which language family?

Ans: Indo-Aryan language family.

Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan

September 20, 2025
Swasth Nari

Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan Latest News

Recently, the Prime Minister of India launched the ‘Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar’ (SNSP) Abhiyaan in Dhar, Madhya Pradesh.

About Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan

  • It is aimed at strengthening healthcare services for women and children across India, with a focus on improving access, quality care, and awareness.
  • It is an initiative by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) and the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD).
  • It encourages active participation from private hospitals and healthcare professionals to foster inclusive healthcare delivery.

Objectives of Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan

  • Enhance Women’s Health Through Comprehensive Screening and Services
  • Promote Family Well-Being via Maternal and Child Care
  • Foster Behaviour Changes Through Education
  • Encourage Community Participation and Public Awareness

Implementation Strategy Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan

  • Nationwide Health Camps with Real-Time Monitoring : It will organise more than one lakh health camps across Ayushman Arogya Mandirs and Community Health Centres, coordinated and tracked through the SASHAKT portal.
  • Multi-Platform Outreach for Awareness: This abhiyan aims to leverage Doordarshan, All India Radio (AIR), and social media campaigns to maximise public awareness and participation
  • Volunteer and Nikshay Mitra Engagement: The campaign expands participation through Nikshay Mitras and volunteers, who support tuberculosis eradication efforts and community health initiatives.

Source: PIB

Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan FAQs

Q1: What is the SASHAKT Portal?

Ans: SASHAKT (Systematic Assessment of Health care providers Knowledge and Training ) is developed to support states in implementation and monitoring of trainings, provide real-time update on the progression of trainings.

Q2: What is swasth nari sashakt parivar abhiyaan?

Ans: Swasth Nari Sashakt Parivar is a 'Maha Abhiyaan' towards bringing about women-led development”.

Javari Temple

September 20, 2025
Javari Temple

Javari Temple Latest News

A seven-foot-tall headless Vishnu idol at the Javari temple in Madhya Pradesh's Khajuraho has grabbed headlines following the Chief Justice of India’s remark during a recent hearing on a petition seeking its restoration.

About Javari Temple

  • It is a Hindu temple, which forms part of the Khajuraho Group of Monuments, a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Madhya Pradesh. 
    • The temples at Khajuraho were built during the Chandella dynasty, which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050 AD. 
    • The temples are famous for their nagara-style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.
  • Built between 1075 and 1100 AD, the Javari Temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.

Javari Temple Architecture

  • The temple is built in the Nagara style of architecture. 
  • Situated on a plinth, it contains a sanctum, vestibule, mandapa, and portico but without pradakshinapatha. 
  • It has an exquisitely carved Makara Torana (Capricorn Arch) and shikhara.
  • The sanctum of Javari Temple contains a four-armed idol of Lord Vishnu, though it is now broken and headless. 
  • There are sculptures of Hindu Gods and navagrahas.
  • The elaborate gateway of the temple is beautiful, and there are images of men and women carved on the walls.

Source: IT

Javari Temple FAQs

Q1: The Javari Temple forms part of which UNESCO World Heritage Site?

Ans: Khajuraho Group of Monuments

Q2: The Javari Temple is dedicated to which deity?

Ans: The Javari Temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.

Q3: The Javari Temple was built in which period?

Ans: Between 1075 and 1100 A

Q4: The Javari Temple is an example of which style of architecture?

Ans: Nagara style

Adamya Fast Patrol Vessel

September 20, 2025
Adamya Fast Patrol Vessel

Adamya Fast Patrol Vessel Latest News

Recently, the Indian Coast Guard ship fast patrol vessel Adamya was commissioned at Paradip Port.

About Adamya Fast Patrol Vessel

  • It is the first ship of the eight in series Adamya-class Fast Patrol Vessels (FPVs).
    • ‘Adamya’ meaning ‘indomitable’ is a projection of ICG’s will and commitment in ensuring safe, secure, and clean seas towards the maritime interest of the Nation.
  • Developed by:  It has been designed and built indigenously by Goa Shipyard Limited.

Features of Adamya Fast Patrol Vessel

  • Carrying Capacity: It displaces approx. 320 tons.
  • It is propelled by two 3000 KW diesel engines to attain a maximum speed of 28 Knots along with an endurance of 1500 nm at economical speed. 
  • It is the first ship fitted with indigenously developed two Controllable Pitch Propellers and gearboxes offering superior manoeuvrability, operational flexibility and enhanced performance at sea.
  • Its weaponry includes a 30 mm CRN 91 gun and two 12.7 mm stabilized remote controlled machine guns, all supported by fire control systems.
  • The vessel also features an Integrated Bridge System, Integrated Platform Management System, Automated Power Management System and augmenting operational efficiency & automation.

Source: PIB

Adamya Fast Patrol Vessel FAQs

Q1: What is a fast patrol vessel?

Ans: Fast Patrol Vessels for Indian Coast Guard are designed to offer high speed and enhanced maritime security.

Q2: What is the Indian Coast Guard?

Ans: It operates under the Ministry of Defence. It has jurisdiction over the territorial waters of India including contiguous zone and exclusive economic zone.

Chirality

September 20, 2025
Chirality

Chirality Latest News

Recent work by researchers has provided critical insights into how chiral perovskite materials crystallize, unlocking the possibility of building high-performance devices with phase-pure chiral perovskite films. 

About Chirality

  • It is the property of an object being non-superimposable on its mirror image.
  • It is found everywhere in nature, from spiral galaxies to the DNA in our cells.

Chirality’s Role in Material Science

  • In materials science, chirality can enable unique light–matter interactions, such as controlling the spin of electrons or detecting circularly polarized light.
  • These capabilities help futuristic technologies in quantum optoelectronics, advanced sensors, and spin-based computing.
    • Example: Chiral materials can distinguish between left- and right-handed circularly polarized light and influence electron spin.
  • Applications: Chirality is relevant for building devices such as circularly polarized light (CPL) detectors, spintronic components, and neuromorphic photonic synapses.

Why are Perovskites Game-Changers?

  • Traditionally, most chiral materials studied have been organic in nature.
  • These organic materials can interact with light effectively, but their poor electrical conductivity has limited their role in optoelectronic devices.
  • On the other hand Halide perovskites bring together strong optical properties with efficient charge transport.
  • When combined with chiral molecules, these low-dimensional halide perovskites can yield chiral perovskites that are both functionally versatile and structurally robust.
  • Challenges:  Making high-quality chiral perovskite films for devices requires precise control over how they crystallize – something that has remained poorly understood.

Source: PIB

Chirality FAQs

Q1: What do you mean by chirality?

Ans: Chirality is when a molecule does not coincide with its mirror image.

Q2: Can chirality exist in inorganic compounds?

Ans: Yes, chirality can also exist in inorganic and organometallic compounds, particularly in coordination chemistry.

WAVES Bazaar 2.0 – Empowering Digital Content Creators

September 20, 2025
WAVES Bazaar

WAVES Bazaar Latest News

  • The I&B Ministry has launched the second phase of WAVES Bazaar, introducing AI matchmaking, online pitching, and secure viewing rooms to empower Indian content creators and boost global outreach.

Introduction

  • India’s media and entertainment industry is undergoing rapid transformation, driven by digitisation, global collaborations, and the growing power of independent creators. 
  • To strengthen this momentum, the Information and Broadcasting (I&B) Ministry launched WAVES Bazaar in January 2025 as a hybrid content marketplace. 
  • Now, the portal is entering its second phase, introducing online pitching sessions, secure viewing rooms, and AI-based matchmaking tools to empower content creators and make India a global content hub.

About WAVES Bazaar

  • WAVES Bazaar is a government-backed initiative that connects creators, investors, production houses, OTT platforms, distributors, and financiers on one digital platform. 
  • It was designed as a networking and marketplace hub covering films, television, animation, gaming, music, advertising, sound design, radio, and podcasts.
  • The platform has already:
    • Onboarded over 6,000 creators and sellers, and 5,500 buyers and companies.
    • Enabled 2,000+ projects to go live.
    • Generated over Rs. 1,300 crore in business leads during its first summit in Mumbai.
    • Facilitated Rs. 100 crore worth of investment discussions via editions in Toronto and Melbourne.
    • Attracted buyers and delegations from 40+ countries.

Key Features in the Second Phase

  • Online Pitching and Viewing Rooms
    • Budding creators can pitch projects directly to investors, OTT platforms, and production houses.
    • Secure viewing rooms will allow content buyers to preview projects safely, enhancing trust and transparency.
  • AI-Driven Matchmaking
    • The portal will leverage AI-based recommendation systems to connect creators with the right financiers, distributors, or production houses.
    • Automated profile building, project profiling, and pitch deck improvements will guide creators in enhancing visibility.
  • Knowledge and Skill Development
    • A knowledge hub with webinars and masterclasses by industry experts will provide guidance.
    • AI will offer suggestions for improving creators’ project portfolios and scoring systems to help buyers make informed decisions.
  • Global Outreach and Co-Production Opportunities
    • WAVES Bazaar will expand its reach through international events and delegations, boosting exposure for Indian creators.
    • The initiative will strengthen co-production treaties with other countries, ensuring broader market access.

Significance for India’s Creative Economy

  • The second phase of WAVES Bazaar is designed to:
    • Democratize content creation by giving small and independent creators access to the same opportunities as established players.
    • Boost India’s position as a global content hub, with stronger participation in international festivals and co-productions.
    • Diversify beyond films into music, gaming, animation, and short-form content.
    • Attract investments and build sustainable collaborations for long-term growth.
  • The I&B Ministry envisions WAVES Bazaar as a flagship initiative in India’s digital cultural economy, aligning with the government’s broader goals of enhancing the country’s soft power and creative exports.

Challenges and Future Outlook

  • While the initiative has generated strong momentum, its success will depend on:
    • Ensuring robust data security and intellectual property protection in viewing rooms.
    • Expanding access to regional creators who often lack digital infrastructure.
    • Sustaining international partnerships beyond initial events.
  • Looking ahead, WAVES Bazaar could become the centralised gateway for Indian creative exports, offering not just visibility but also monetisation, mentorship, and global collaboration.

Source: IE

WAVES Bazaar FAQs

Q1: What is WAVES Bazaar?

Ans: WAVES Bazaar is a government-backed hybrid portal for Indian content creators to connect with buyers, financiers, and global platforms.

Q2: What new features are being introduced in its second phase?

Ans: The second phase includes online pitching sessions, secure viewing rooms, AI matchmaking, and knowledge hubs.

Q3: How does WAVES Bazaar support India’s creative economy?

Ans: It democratizes opportunities, boosts international collaborations, and promotes India as a global content hub.

Q4: What global initiatives are linked to WAVES Bazaar?

Ans: The platform has hosted events in Toronto and Melbourne, generating ₹100 crore worth of investment discussions.

Q5: How many creators and buyers are currently on the platform?

Ans: WAVES Bazaar has onboarded over 6,000 creators and 5,500 buyers so far.

Voter Name Deletion: Process, Legal Provisions, and Online Gaps

September 20, 2025
Voter Name Deletion Process

Voter Name Deletion Process Latest News

  • Recently, the Leader of Opposition in Loka Sabha had alleged that 6,018 voters’ names were attempted to be deleted from Karnataka’s Aland constituency rolls in 2023 through online forms filed without locals’ knowledge. 
  • He said the state CID sent 18 letters in 18 months to the Election Commission of India (ECI) seeking details, but the ECI has not provided the information so far.

Legal Provisions for Voter Deletion

  • Under Section 22 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, Electoral Registration Officers (EROs) can correct or delete names from electoral rolls, either on their own or upon application. 
  • Before deletion, they must conduct an inquiry, give the voter a chance to respond, and then issue an order. 
  • Names can be removed if the person has died, shifted residence, or is ineligible — such as being under 18 or not a citizen.

Applying for Voter Deletion

  • Under the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960, electors can seek deletions through Form 7, used to object to inclusion or request removal of names. 
  • The form may be filed for one’s own name or another elector in the same constituency. 
  • It can be downloaded from the Election Commission’s voter portal (voters.eci.gov.in), submitted to the Booth Level Officer (BLO), or filed online via the ECINet app.

Filing Form 7 Online for Voter Deletion

  • To file Form 7 online, applicants must first create an account and link their phone number to their EPIC number on the voter portal or app. 
  • Only those registered in the same constituency can submit a Form 7 seeking deletion of a name from a particular constituency. 
  • The form requires the applicant’s details — name, EPIC number, phone number — along with the name, EPIC (if available), and address of the person being objected to. 
  • Applicants must choose one of five reasons: death, underage, permanently shifted, already enrolled, or not an Indian citizen. 
  • No proof is required, but applicants must sign a declaration affirming the truth of their claim. 
  • The completed form can be submitted online or printed for offline submission to the Booth Level Officer (BLO).

Processing of Voter Deletion Forms

  • Since 2018, the Election Commission has used ERONet, a centralised portal for Electoral Registration Officers (EROs), replacing state-level systems. 
  • In 2024, it was upgraded to ECINet, which integrates about 40 of its existing apps and portals for voters and officers.
    • Voters who log on to the voters’ portal or officers who access ERONet are all redirected to the new ECINet portal.
  • Applications filed online or offline are routed to the ERO or Assistant ERO of the concerned area. 
  • They must issue a notice to the elector, allow seven days for response, hold a hearing, and then pass an order. 
  • Booth Level Officers (BLOs) are tasked with conducting field visits to verify the claims before a final decision is made.

Gaps in the Online Voter Deletion System

  • The voter deletion system has loopholes as no proof is required while filing Form 7, and applicants’ EPIC and phone numbers are not verified. 
  • This allows misuse, such as linking another person’s EPIC to a different phone number, as seen in Karnataka’s Aland constituency. 
  • The Election Commission admitted this vulnerability but noted that deletion attempts were stopped during ERO inquiries. 
  • Officials maintain that safeguards exist under the Representation of the People Act and Registration of Electors Rules, since deletions require a detailed inquiry by the ERO and BLO before approval.

Source: IE | LM

Voter Name Deletion Process FAQs

Q1: What legal provisions allow voter name deletion?

Ans: Section 22 of the RP Act, 1950 empowers EROs to delete names after inquiry if the voter has died, shifted residence, or is ineligible.

Q2: How can electors apply for voter name deletion?

Ans: Electors use Form 7 under the 1960 Rules, either for themselves or another elector, submitted offline to BLOs or online via the ECINet portal.

Q3: What details are required in Form 7 for voter deletion?

Ans: Applicants provide their name, EPIC, phone number, and details of the elector objected to, citing reasons like death, underage, shifting, or non-citizenship.

Q4: How are voter deletion forms processed by authorities?

Ans: EROs issue notices, allow seven days for response, hold hearings, and BLOs verify claims before finalising deletion decisions through ECINet.

Q5: What gaps exist in the online voter deletion system?

Ans: No proof is required while filing Form 7, and EPIC-phone links aren’t verified, enabling misuse like in Aland, though deletions need ERO/BLO inquiries.

Rising Public Debt of States – A Decadal Analysis by CAG

September 20, 2025
Rising Public Debt of States

Rising Public Debt of States Latest News

  • The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) released a first-of-its-kind decadal report (2013-14 to 2022-23) on the fiscal health of states, highlighting a sharp increase in public debt and its implications for fiscal sustainability.

Meaning of Public Debt

  • Public debt arises when government expenditures exceed its revenue from taxes and other sources, necessitating borrowing from domestic and international markets.
  • In essence, public debt includes all liabilities of the government funded through the Consolidated Fund of India or the Consolidated Fund of State (in case of a state government). 
  • This debt is categorized into internal and external components, with  internal debt further subdivided into marketable and non-marketable securities.
  • Marketable government securities, such as G-secs and T-Bills, are issued through auctions, while non-marketable ones include treasury bills issued to state governments and special securities for the National Small Savings Fund.

Debt-to-GDP/GSDP Ratio

  • Meaning:
    • A Debt-to-Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ratio/ a Debt-to-Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) ratio is a critical metric assessing a country's/ a state’s ability to service its debt - indicating its ability to repay debt. 
    • A higher ratio signals greater fiscal risk, while a lower ratio suggests greater stability and capacity to handle debt. 
  • Significance: It is important for prudent fiscal management, as is crucial to evaluate the nature of government deficits—whether they fund capital assets or non-asset-creating expenditures like subsidies. 
  • Acceptable level of debt-to-GDP ratio: The NK Singh Committee (established in 2016 to review and recommend changes to the FRBM Act, 2003) proposed a debt-to-GDP ratio of -
    • 40% for the central government and 20% for states, 
    • Aiming for a combined general government debt-to-GDP ratio of 60%.

Growth in States’ Public Debt

  • Total debt (internal debt and loans and advances from the Centre) increased: From ₹17.57 lakh crore in 2013-14 to ₹59.60 lakh crore in 2022-23 (rose by 3.39 times).
  • Debt-to-GSDP ratio: Increased from 16.66% (2013-14) to 22.96% (2022-23).
  • Contribution to National GDP: States’ debt equaled 22.17% of India’s GDP in FY 2022-23.

Inter-State Variations in Debt Burden

  • Highest Debt-to-GSDP ratios: Punjab (40.35%), Nagaland (37.15%), West Bengal (33.70%).
  • Lowest ratios: Odisha (8.45%), Maharashtra (14.64%), Gujarat (16.37%).
  • Distribution:
    • As on 31st March 2023, 8 states had public debt liability of more than 30%  of their GSDP; 
    • 6 states had public debt liability of less than 20% of their GSDP and 
    • The remaining 14 states had public debt liability between 20 to 30% of their respective GSDP in FY 2022-23.

Sources of States’ Public Debt

  • Loans raised from the open market through securities, treasury bills, bonds, etc.
  • Loans from banks such as the State Bank of India (SBI).
  • Ways and Means Advances (WMA) from Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
  • Loans from financial institutions such as Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).
  • Loans from the union government. Example, back-to-back loans for GST compensation shortfall and special capital assistance (especially during COVID-19).

Debt Sustainability Indicators

  • Debt as percentage of revenue receipts: Varied between 128% (2014-15) and 191% (2020-21).
  • Debt as percentage of non-debt receipts: Between 127% and 190%.
  • Average debt profile: 
    • On an average, the public debt of the states has been about 150% of their revenue receipts/ total non-debt receipts. 
    • Similarly, public debt has ranged between 17-25% of the GSDP and 20% of the GSDP. 
    • The marked increase of 4%, from 21% of GSDP in FY 2019-20 to 25% in FY 2020-21 is attributable to decrease in GSDP in FY 2020-21 being Covid year.

Fiscal Management Concerns

  • Golden rule of borrowing: Debt should finance capital expenditure, not revenue expenditure.
  • Violation of rule: 11 states (including Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, West Bengal, Kerala, etc.) used borrowings to finance current expenditure.
  • Example: Andhra Pradesh spent only 17% and Punjab 26% of borrowings on capital expenditure.
  • Risk: 
    • GST compensation loans and COVID relief borrowing have altered debt dynamics.
    • Unsustainable fiscal practices resulting in crowding out of productive investment and debt trap potential.
    • High state debt levels threaten macroeconomic stability and strain Centre-State fiscal relations.

Way Forward

  • Fiscal discipline: States must align borrowing with productive capital creation, avoiding use for routine expenditure.
  • Debt management strategy: Establishing Public Debt Management Agency (PDMA, proposed in the 2015 Union Budget) - enhanced transparency, improved monitoring, and debt restructuring mechanisms.
  • Strengthening state finances: Diversify revenue sources, rationalise subsidies, improve tax buoyancy, and reduce dependence on central transfers.
  • Adherence to FRBM Act: Ensure fiscal prudence through legally binding debt and deficit targets.
  • Institutional mechanisms: Strengthening state finance commissions and CAG oversight for sustainable fiscal federalism.

Source: IE

Rising Public Debt of States FAQs

Q1: Why has the public debt of Indian states increased significantly between 2013-14 and 2022-23?

Ans: Debt rose 3.39 times due to higher borrowing needs, GST compensation loans, and COVID-19-related fiscal stress.

Q2: Which states recorded the highest and lowest debt-to-GSDP ratios in 2022-23?

Ans: Punjab (40.35%) had the highest and Odisha (8.45%) the lowest, reflecting inter-state variations in fiscal sustainability.

Q3: What is the “Golden Rule of Borrowing” in public finance?

Ans: The rule mandates borrowing only for capital expenditure, but 11 states used borrowings to fund current expenditure.

Q4: How did the COVID-19 pandemic affect states’ debt-to-GSDP ratio in FY 2020-21?

Ans: It rose to 25% due to contraction in GSDP and increased borrowings for relief measures.

Q5: What reforms are needed to ensure sustainable debt management among Indian states?

Ans: Stricter adherence to FRBM targets, rationalisation of subsidies, diversification of revenue, and debt management transparency.

Daily Editorial Analysis 20 September 2025

September 20, 2025
Daily Editorial Analysis

The Saudi-Pakistan Pact is a Dodgy Insurance Policy

Context

  • The signing of the Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA) between Saudi Arabia and Pakistan in Riyadh on September 17, 2025, marks a significant development in the geopolitics of Southwest Asia.
  • Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman and Prime Minister Shahbaz Sharif, joined by Field Marshal Asim Munir, symbolised not just bilateral cooperation but also an attempt to reshape regional security equations.
  • While the pact may be hailed as a victory of future aspirations over past experience, its sustainability and effectiveness remain deeply contested.
  • To appreciate its import, it is necessary to examine the history of Saudi–Pakistani defence ties, the current calculations of both parties, and the wider consequences, particularly for India.

The Highs and Lows of Saudi–Pakistani Defence Cooperation

  • Historical Context

    • Defence collaboration between Riyadh and Islamabad has a long history, dating back to 1951.
    • The period from 1979 to 1989 represented a golden decade, when nearly 20,000 Pakistani troops were stationed in Saudi Arabia.
    • Their dual mandate was both symbolic and strategic: to protect Islam’s holiest shrines and act as a counterweight to threats from Iran and Yemen. Yet this arrangement revealed fault lines.
    • Saudi leaders often regarded Pakistani soldiers as mercenaries, while Pakistani generals resented serving as subordinates in a foreign command.
    • The Saudis’ insistence on excluding Shia soldiers from Pakistani contingents aggravated tensions.
    • These divergences culminated in the withdrawal of Pakistani troops by 1990.
    • In subsequent crises, such as the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the Yemeni civil war in 2015, Pakistan declined Saudi requests for direct involvement, restricting its role to defending the holy sites.

  • America’s Influence in SMDA Agreement

    • American influence has historically underpinned this bilateral relationship, often shaping its trajectory from behind the scenes.
    • The recent chronology, with high-level meetings in Riyadh, followed by Field Marshal Munir’s unprecedented lunch with U.S. President Trump, suggests Washington’s continued role in orchestrating security alignments.
    • The SMDA, therefore, cannot be viewed in isolation but as part of a triangular framework involving Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and the United States.

The Present Calculations: Riyadh’s Perspective

  • For Saudi Arabia, the SMDA is both a necessity and a compromise.
  • Its demand for a U.S. defence pact, access to nuclear technology, and advanced weapons has been stalled by regional upheavals, particularly after the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel and the Gaza war.
  • In this context, the SMDA emerged as a consolation prize, giving Riyadh a partner it can rely on without upsetting its domestic religious establishment or exposing itself to Arab power struggles.

Factors Informing Riyadh’s Calculus

  • Survival without foreign troops

    • Since 1991, the kingdom has weathered al-Qaeda terrorism, two Gulf wars, and the Yemeni crisis without large-scale foreign forces on its soil.
    • Its recent $100 billion purchase of advanced U.S. weapons further strengthens its capabilities.

  • Nuclear Considerations

    • Pakistan’s nuclear status adds strategic weight to the partnership, especially if Iran inches closer to acquiring similar capabilities.
    • However, an overt nuclear transfer to Saudi Arabia remains improbable due to Israeli red lines and international scrutiny.

  • Constraints of Pakistani alliances:

    • Pakistan’s deep strategic partnership with China complicates Riyadh’s ability to cultivate unrestrained military camaraderie.

Islamabad’s Perspective: Strategic Opportunism

  • For Pakistan, the SMDA is less about shared defence and more about strategic opportunism.
  • Islamabad is unlikely to fight Riyadh’s battles against Iran, Yemen, or Israel, just as it knows Saudi Arabia would not risk entanglement in conflicts against India or Afghanistan. Instead, Pakistan seeks to:
  • Monetise Saudi insecurity by extracting economic aid, oil concessions, and military hardware.
  • Leverage U.S. goodwill through its role in the trilateral arrangement, hoping to reduce its disadvantage against India.
  • Enhance domestic prestige for its military leadership through expanded training, equipment access, and geopolitical relevance.
  • Thus, the asymmetry in expectations is stark: Riyadh desires strategic reassurance, while Islamabad seeks material and political gains.

Regional Implications: India’s Position

  • The SMDA inevitably raises questions about its impact on India.
  • As the world’s third-largest oil importer and a key Saudi partner, India occupies a unique position.
  • It is Saudi Arabia’s second-largest trading partner, with a diaspora highly valued for its professionalism and political neutrality.
  • Since 2014, New Delhi has cultivated strong ties with Riyadh, ranging from defence cooperation to intelligence sharing.
  • Notably, Saudi officials have emphasised balancing relations with both Pakistan and India, explicitly acknowledging India’s nuclear status and strategic weight.
  • Riyadh reportedly kept New Delhi informed about the SMDA, suggesting a desire to avoid alienating a vital partner.
  • For India, the agreement serves as a reminder to remain vigilant, deepen engagement across the Arabian Sea, and strengthen its own strategic presence in West Asia.

Conclusion

  • The Saudi–Pakistani Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement is less a grand alliance than a calculated hedge.
  • History cautions that defence ties between the two have been riddled with mistrust, asymmetry, and divergent threat perceptions.
  • In its current form, the SMDA appears more symbolic than substantive, offering Riyadh a layer of reassurance and Islamabad a channel for financial and strategic dividends.

The Saudi-Pakistan Pact is a Dodgy Insurance Policy FAQs 

Q1. What is the Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA)?
Ans. The SMDA is a defence pact signed between Saudi Arabia and Pakistan in September 2025 to enhance security cooperation and strategic alignment.

Q2. Why has Saudi–Pakistani defence cooperation historically faced challenges?
Ans. It has faced challenges because of mutual mistrust, differing threat perceptions, and disputes over issues such as the inclusion of Shia troops in Pakistani contingents.

Q3. What does Pakistan hope to gain from the SMDA?
Ans. Pakistan hopes to gain economic aid, oil supplies, military hardware, and greater strategic relevance by leveraging Saudi insecurity and U.S. involvement.

Q4. How has Saudi Arabia reassured India about the SMDA?
Ans. Saudi Arabia reassured India by stressing its intention to balance relations with both Pakistan and India, while acknowledging India’s nuclear status and strategic importance.

Q5. Why is the SMDA considered more symbolic than substantive?
Ans. The SMDA is considered more symbolic because it provides reassurance and optics but is unlikely to lead to large-scale military deployments or deep strategic integration.

Source: The Hindu

A Climate-Health Vision with Lessons From India

Context:

  • In July 2025, Brazil hosted the Global Conference on Climate and Health, with 90 nations drafting the Belém Health Action Plan, to be launched at COP30. The plan will set the global climate-health agenda.
  • Notably, India had no official representation, a missed opportunity to showcase its developmental approach and position itself as a model for implementing the Belém Plan.
  • This article highlights how India’s welfare schemes provide valuable lessons for integrating climate and health goals, the challenges in intersectoral governance, and the urgent need for a coordinated, whole-of-society approach.

Lessons from India’s Welfare Schemes for Climate-Health Action

  • India’s intersectoral welfare programmes show how policies not explicitly designed as climate measures can deliver significant health and environmental co-benefits.
  • They highlight the power of integration, leadership, and community engagement for advancing climate-health goals.
  • Nutrition and Climate-Resilient Food Systems
    • The PM POSHAN scheme, reaching 11 crore children in 11 lakh schools, links health, education, agriculture, and food procurement.
    • By promoting millets and traditional grains, it tackles malnutrition while strengthening climate-resilient food systems.
  • Sanitation, Livelihoods, and Clean Energy
    • The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan improved sanitation, public health, and dignity while supporting sustainability.
    • MNREGA restored degraded ecosystems through rural works, and PM Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) cut household air pollution and emissions by promoting clean cooking fuel.

Critical Insights for Climate-Health Integration

  • Political Leadership: Direct Prime Ministerial backing, as in Swachh Bharat and PMUY, ensured inter-ministerial cooperation and wider public support. Framing climate change as a health emergency can mobilise similar momentum.
  • Community Engagement: Programmes succeeded by invoking cultural symbols and grassroots participation, showing that climate action also needs cultural anchoring to societal values of health and prosperity.
  • Institutional Strengthening: Building on existing frameworks — such as ASHA workers, SHGs, municipal bodies, and panchayats — enhances credibility and ensures sustained action at the community level.

Challenges in Implementing Intersectoral Climate-Health Policies

  • While India’s welfare programmes offer valuable lessons, their implementation highlights key structural and institutional challenges that must be addressed for effective climate-health governance.
  • Administrative and Structural Constraints
    • Policies often struggle due to siloed departmental responsibilities.
    • For example, high LPG refill costs under PMUY persist as oil marketing interests overshadow beneficiary needs.
    • Social and cultural barriers also limit equitable access without sustained support mechanisms.

Three Pillars for Health-Anchored Climate Governance

  • Strategic Prioritisation: Political leaders must frame climate action around immediate health benefits rather than distant risks, much like PMUY linked clean cooking to women’s empowerment.
  • Procedural Integration: Health impact assessments should become mandatory across climate-relevant sectors — energy, agriculture, transport, and urban planning — similar to environmental clearances.
  • Participatory Implementation: Communities resonate more with health gains like cleaner air or safe water than with carbon metrics. Local health workers can be strong advocates by linking environmental changes to everyday health outcomes.

India’s Path to Integrated Climate-Health Action

  • India faces a crucial choice: continue tackling climate change and health issues separately with limited results, or adopt a bold, intersectoral model that treats them as interconnected challenges.
  • By building on its welfare policy experience and engaging globally, India can pioneer a governance framework delivering coordinated, transformative solutions.
  • The stakes are high, and the costs of inaction severe — only a whole-of-society approach can meet this moment.

Conclusion

  • India must embrace an integrated climate-health model, leveraging welfare experiences, leadership, and community action.
  • The costs of inaction are immense, while coordinated solutions offer transformative global impact.

A Climate-Health Vision with Lessons From India FAQs

Q1. What was the significance of the 2025 Global Conference on Climate and Health in Brazil?
Ans. The conference shaped the Belém Health Action Plan, set for launch at COP30, which will define the global agenda on climate-health integration.

Q2. How does the PM POSHAN scheme demonstrate climate-health integration?
Ans. It tackles malnutrition while promoting millets and traditional grains, linking health, education, agriculture, and food procurement, and fostering climate-resilient food systems.

Q3. What are the three pillars of health-anchored climate governance suggested for India?
Ans. They are strategic prioritisation of health framing, procedural integration through mandatory health impact assessments, and participatory implementation leveraging community health advocates.

Q4. What challenges hinder intersectoral climate-health policy in India?
Ans. Siloed departmental responsibilities, high LPG refill costs under PMUY, and cultural barriers limiting equitable access highlight structural and social challenges.

Q5. Why is political leadership crucial in India’s climate-health approach?
Ans. Direct involvement, as seen in Swachh Bharat and PMUY, ensures inter-ministerial cooperation, public support, and frames climate change as an immediate health priority.

Source: TH

Daily Editorial Analysis 20 September 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

CAG Uses AI Audits to Detect Fraud in State Schemes

September 20, 2025
AI Audits

AI Audits Latest News

  • The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India, K Sanjay Murthy, revealed that AI and ML-based forensic audits have exposed numerous fraudulent cases in state beneficiary schemes. 
  • Speaking at the second State Finance Secretaries Conference, he said these audits can prevent misuse of funds and save significant financial resources for state governments.

CAG Pushes AI-Driven Forensic Audits and Digital Governance

  • The CAG of India emphasised the growing role of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in detecting fraud during audits of state beneficiary schemes. 
  • Digitisation of audit processes is now the CAG’s top priority to enable remote audits, reduce hassles for executives, ensure timely reporting, and expand coverage — including 100% checks of GST and Income Tax databases.

Use of AI/ML in Fraud Detection

  • AI/ML-based forensic audits have already exposed numerous fraudulent cases across states. 
  • These tools could save states significant financial resources currently being siphoned off through fraudulent practices. 
  • A key application of remote audits will also include identifying tampering of electronic documents.

Digitisation of Financial Management Systems

  • There have been progresses by states in adopting digital tools for public financial management. 
  • Key systems include: 
    • the Integrated Financial Management Information System (IFMIS), 
      • IFMIS is a digital, web-based platform used by government entities to automate and integrate various financial functions like budgeting, accounting, payments, and reporting. 
    • Works and Accounts Management Information System (WAMIS), 
      • WAMIS is a comprehensive digital system for managing construction projects, covering their entire life cycle from inception to completion. 
      • Developed by C-DAC, it tracks and monitors financial transactions, links them to physical progress, etc.
    • Government e-Procurement Platform (GePNIC), 
      • GePNIC is a software system developed by India's National Informatics Centre (NIC) for conducting all stages of the government procurement process for goods, services, and works.
    • e-voucher systems, and 
    • The Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP). 
      • DILRMP is a Central Sector Scheme launched by the GoI to computerize, digitize, and modernize all land records and registration processes across the country
  • However, the maturity level of these applications varies significantly across states, though digitisation has already improved the finalisation of Monthly Civil Accounts.

Remote Audits Across Departments

  • The CAG has successfully conducted remote audits in areas such as GST, stamp and registration, e-procurement, works, and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) schemes. 
  • The next goal is to extend remote auditing to all government departments with digitised records.

Auditing Local Governments

  • There is need to audit Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), as nearly 15 cities contribute more than 50% of India’s GDP. 
  • Cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, and Hyderabad alone account for 30% of GDP and could add 1.5% to annual growth if efficiencies improve.

Conclusion

  • Initiatives such as SNA SPARSH will strengthen cash management, while schemes like Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment will help states build IT-driven financial infrastructure.
    • SNA SPARSH is a cash management system and a Single Nodal Account (SNA) initiative for India's Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) that facilitates a "just-in-time" release of funds from central and state consolidated funds. 
    • It integrates the Public Financial Management System (PFMS), the State Integrated Financial Management System, and the e-Kuber platform of the RBI to achieve better transparency, efficiency, and accountability in fund flow.
  • It is therefore imperative for states to continuously adopt and integrate advanced digital tools, including artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML), into their public financial management frameworks. 
  • Such integration will not only enhance transparency and accountability but also significantly improve efficiency in governance, thereby ensuring more effective utilisation of public resources and long-term fiscal sustainability.

Source: IE | ToI | OB

AI Audits FAQs

Q1: What did the CAG reveal about AI audits in state schemes?

Ans: CAG stated that AI and ML-based audits detected large-scale fraud, helping save state resources and improving governance transparency and accountability.

Q2: What is the main focus of CAG’s digitisation efforts?

Ans: CAG prioritises digitisation to enable remote audits, reduce executive hassles, ensure timely reporting, and achieve 100% checks of GST and Income Tax databases.

Q3: Which digital tools support financial management in states?

Ans: States use IFMIS, WAMIS, GePNIC, e-voucher systems, and DILRMP to improve transparency, accountability, and efficiency in financial operations and governance.

Q4: Where has the CAG successfully conducted remote audits so far?

Ans: Remote audits were conducted for GST, stamp and registration, e-procurement, works, and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) schemes, with plans to expand to all departments.

Q5: Why is auditing local governments considered important by the CAG?

Ans: Nearly 15 cities generate over 50% of India’s GDP. Stronger audits can boost efficiency, contributing an additional 1.5% to annual national economic growth.

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