Articles on 16 October 2025

by Vajiram & Ravi - 16 October 2025

Vajiram & Ravi provides Daily articles for 16 October 2025, tailored for aspirants. We cover all relevant news and events crucial for the exam, ensuring you stay updated & well-prepared.

Max Weber, Early Life, Theory of Bureaucracy, Contributions, Legacy

October 16, 2025
Max Weber

Max Weber, one of the most influential social thinkers of the modern era, was born on April 21, 1864, in Erfurt, Prussia. He was the eldest son of Max Weber Sr., a prominent liberal politician, and Helene Weber, who hailed from a Calvinist orthodox background. Weber’s upbringing combined intellectual stimulation with exposure to political thought. His father’s election to the Prussian House of Deputies in 1868 led the family to move to Berlin, where Max was exposed to broader political and cultural debates. Despite a rigid household, his mother’s emphasis on proper conduct and education shaped Weber’s early moral and intellectual sensibilities. Family disputes and domestic tensions, however, had a profound influence on Weber throughout his life, contributing to his reflective and often introspective temperament. In this article, we are going to cover Max Weber, his early life and education, contribution to sociology, theory of bureaucracy, and his impact and legacy. 

Max Weber

Max Weber’s intellectual journey from a politically active youth in Prussia to a globally recognized sociologist reflects a life shaped by familial influence, rigorous scholarship, and deep engagement with social, political, and economic realities. His contributions to sociology, political economy, and administrative theory have left an indelible mark on modern thought. Weber’s pioneering insights into bureaucracy, authority, and social methodology continue to guide scholars and practitioners in understanding the complexities of modern societies. By focusing on rationality, rules, and systematic organization, Weber not only laid the foundation for contemporary administrative science but also illuminated the broader patterns of social life, governance, and economic development, providing his enduring legacy as a transformative figure in the social sciences.

Max Weber’s Early Life and Education

In 1882, Weber left home to study at the University of Heidelberg. His academic journey was briefly interrupted for a year of military service at Strassburg, during which he developed a close intellectual bond with his maternal aunt Ida Baumgarten and her husband, historian Hermann Baumgarten. Their guidance profoundly influenced his early intellectual formation, nurturing his interest in history, politics, and social structures.

Weber completed his doctoral research on the agricultural history of ancient Rome, examining the formation of medieval trading societies. He contributed analyses of eastern Germany’s agrarian challenges for the influential Union for Social Policy in 1890. During this period, he also explored the workings of the German stock exchange and the social transformations of Latin antiquity. Concurrently, Weber was politically active, aligning with the left-liberal Protestant Social Union, reflecting his interest in linking social theory with political practice.

Weber’s intellectual prowess and disciplined scholarly work enabled a rapid academic ascent. By the mid-1890s, he was appointed a full-time professor of political economy at Freiburg and, shortly thereafter, at Heidelberg, consolidating his reputation as a leading thinker in sociology, economics, and political science.

Max Weber Contributions to Sociology

Max Weber is widely regarded as a founding figure of modern sociology, alongside Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim. His work includes economic sociology, political sociology, and the sociology of religion. Weber, influenced by contemporaries such as Werner Sombart, Georg Simmel, and Wilhelm Dilthey, focusing that social sciences require distinct methodologies from the natural sciences, advocating an interpretive approach to understand human behavior and social institutions.

Weber’s writings, many of which were edited and compiled posthumously, have profoundly shaped social thought. Sociologists like Talcott Parsons interpreted Weber through a functionalist lens, though this perspective has been critiqued for incorporating implicit conservatism. Other thinkers, including Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, György Lukács, Jürgen Habermas, Joseph Schumpeter, and Leo Strauss, drew on Weber’s insights, applying them to diverse areas of modern social, political, and economic analysis. Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises remarked on the early death of Weber as a great loss to German intellectual life.

Max Weber and the Theory of Bureaucracy

One of Weber’s most enduring contributions is his theory of bureaucracy, which he systematically outlined in works such as The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905). Weber saw bureaucracy as the most rational and efficient way to organize administrative and organizational structures. Unlike traditional institutions, bureaucracies operate on principles of equality, clearly defined roles, and systematic procedures, promoting efficiency, predictability, and accountability.

Weber argued that bureaucracy is important for structuring modern organizations, ensuring economic effectiveness and administrative order. He identified many important characteristics of bureaucratic management:

  1. Division of Labor: Each employee has a defined role and responsibilities, promoting specialization.
  2. Hierarchy: Authority is structured in a clear chain of command, enabling effective supervision and control.
  3. Rules and Regulations: Standardized procedures govern operations, reducing arbitrary decisions.
  4. Impersonality: Decisions are made based on rules and merit, rather than personal preferences or relationships.

In addition, Weber distinguished between three types of authority within organizations: traditional authority, rooted in customs and inheritance; charismatic authority, based on personal qualities and leadership; and legal-rational authority, derived from formal rules and laws. This last form is the basis of bureaucratic structures. Bureaucracy relies on codified regulations that managers enforce systematically, ensuring uniformity, accountability, and operational clarity.

Max Weber Impact and Legacy

  • Max Weber’s theories extended beyond bureaucracy. He analyzed the relationship between religion, economics, and social change, notably demonstrating how Protestant ethics contributed to the development of modern capitalism. His work provided a framework for understanding social stratification, political authority, organizational behavior, and economic systems.
  • His methodological approach emphasized the “verstehen” (interpretive understanding) method, highlighting the importance of empathetic insight into human behavior. 
  • Weber’s insistence on empirical and analytical rigor helped establish sociology as a distinct academic discipline and influenced fields ranging from law and economics to political science and religious studies.
  • Even today, Weber’s ideas inform debates in organizational theory, governance, and public administration. Bureaucratic principles remain foundational to both governmental and corporate management worldwide. 
  • Scholars continue to reference his work when examining institutional efficiency, the rationalization of society, and the interplay between social values and economic behavior.
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Max Weber FAQs

Q1: What is Max Weber's theory?

Ans: Max Weber’s theory emphasizes the study of society through rationalization, social action, and the relationship between culture, economics, and authority.

Q2: What is Max Weber most famous for?

Ans: Max Weber is most famous for his contributions to sociology, particularly the theory of bureaucracy and The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.

Q3: What are the 4 classes of Max Weber?

Ans: Weber identified four social classes: Upper Class, Middle Class, Lower Middle Class, and Working Class, based on wealth, power, and prestige.

Q4: What is the theory of bureaucracy?

Ans: Weber’s theory of bureaucracy describes an organizational system with a clear hierarchy, defined roles, formal rules, and impersonal relationships to ensure efficiency and order.

Q5: Who was Max Weber?

Ans: Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German sociologist, economist, and political thinker, regarded as a founding figure of modern sociology.

Anglo Afghan War, Treaty, First, Second & Third Anglo-Afghan War

October 16, 2025
Anglo Afghan War

The Anglo-Afghan engagements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries show the complex interplay of imperial strategy, local politics, and regional geopolitics. During the early nineteenth century, the geopolitical landscape of Central and South Asia was being shaped by competing imperial ambitions, with Britain and Russia emerging as the foremost rivals. The growing influence of Russia in Persia and Central Asia began to pose a direct challenge to British strategic interests in India. Britain had envisioned securing a trade route via the Euphrates River to India, which would facilitate commercial connectivity and reinforce imperial control. However, with Russia consolidating its presence in Persia, particularly after the signing of the Treaty of Turkomanchai in 1828, British fears of a potential Russian incursion into India became acute. These anxieties highlighted the strategic importance of Afghanistan and the northwest passes, which served as natural gateways into the Indian subcontinent. Consequently, British policymakers emphasized the need for a pro-British regime in Afghanistan to serve as a buffer against potential Russian advances. In this article, we are going to cover the Anglo Afghan War.

Anglo Afghan War

The Anglo Afghan War took place because Britain’s primary objective was the protection of India from external threats, particularly Russian expansionism. Afghanistan’s strategic location made it an important buffer state, but its complex tribal and political structures posed persistent challenges.

The First Anglo-Afghan War showed the dangers of direct intervention and the high costs associated with military campaigns. John Lawrence’s policy of non-intervention exemplified the merits of restraint and diplomacy in maintaining frontier stability. By contrast, Lytton’s assertive policies showed the ongoing strategic tensions with Russia and the need for proactive safeguards. The Treaty of Gandamak and the Durand Line Agreement institutionalized British influence while attempting to accommodate Afghan sovereignty, setting the stage for enduring frontier management strategies.

Lord Auckland and the Forward Policy

In 1836, Lord William Eden, the Governor-General of India, was succeeded by Lord Auckland, whose tenure marked a shift toward proactive frontier diplomacy. Lord Auckland introduced what came to be known as the “Forward Policy,” a strategy that advocated direct intervention to safeguard British India’s northwestern borders. The essence of this policy was the prevention of Russian influence in Afghanistan and the stabilization of the region through diplomatic or military means. This approach represented a departure from previous policies of cautious observation and indirect influence.

Afghanistan’s ruler at the time, Amir Dost Mohammed, sought British assistance to regain Peshawar from the Sikhs. The British, however, were reluctant to involve themselves directly in territorial disputes with the Sikh Empire. This refusal prompted Dost Mohammed to seek support from Russia and Persia, which further alarmed British authorities. Determined to preempt Russian influence, the British embarked on a plan to install a friendly Afghan ruler, Shah Shuja, who had been dethroned in 1809 and was living under British protection in Ludhiana.

Anglo War Tripartite Treaty of 1838

To put the Forward Policy in action, the British orchestrated a Tripartite Treaty in 1838 involving the British East India Company, the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and Shah Shuja. The treaty stipulated that Shah Shuja would be restored to the Afghan throne with military backing from the Sikhs and financial support from the British, while the British themselves would remain minimally involved in direct administration. Shah Shuja was to conduct international relations under the guidance of British and Sikh advisors, and he ceded certain rights over the Amirs of Sindh in exchange for British protection. Additionally, he recognized Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s sovereignty over territories east of the Indus River. The treaty reflected Britain’s objective of creating a stable, pro-British Afghan monarchy that would serve as a strategic buffer state against Russian expansion.

First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842)

In the early 19th century, British India was wary of growing Russian influence in Central Asia and Afghanistan. The British feared that Russia might advance toward India, threatening its northwest frontier. To counter this, the British adopted the Forward Policy under Governor-General Lord Auckland, aiming to establish a pro-British ruler in Afghanistan.

  • Causes:
      • Afghanistan’s Amir, Dost Mohammed, sought Russian support after being denied British aid to regain Peshawar from the Sikhs.
      • British fears of Russian encroachment led them to support the exiled Afghan ruler Shah Shuja, who had lived under British protection since 1809.
      • A Tripartite Treaty (1838) was signed between the British, Sikhs, and Shah Shuja, enabling his restoration to the throne.
  • Course of the War:
      • British forces invaded Afghanistan and captured Kabul in 1839, installing Shah Shuja as the king.
      • Shah Shuja proved unpopular, while Dost Mohammed retained loyalty among the Afghan tribes.
      • In 1840-41, widespread revolts and an insurrection erupted, targeting British forces.
      • The British negotiated a retreat in 1841, but the withdrawal turned disastrous, with nearly 20,000 soldiers lost in the retreat from Kabul.
  • Outcome:
    • Afghanistan regained independence under Dost Mohammed, and the British suffered a humiliating defeat.
    • The war exposed the dangers of direct interference in Afghan internal politics and the challenges of controlling the northwest frontier.

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880)

By the 1870s, British fears of Russian influence resurfaced. Amir Sher Ali Khan initially allowed Russian envoys but refused to receive a British mission in Kabul. The British interpreted this as a threat to Indian security and launched the Second Anglo-Afghan War.

  • Causes:
      • Sher Ali’s refusal to host a British mission.
      • The British desire to secure Afghanistan as a buffer state against Russian expansion.
  • Course of the War:
      • British forces invaded in 1878, forcing Sher Ali to flee.
      • Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879): Signed with Sher Ali’s son Yakub Khan, it ceded control of Afghanistan’s foreign policy to Britain and stationed a permanent British envoy in Kabul.
      • Widespread resistance, including the killing of the British envoy in Kabul, triggered renewed British military action.
      • British forces eventually occupied Kabul and Kandahar.
  • Outcome:
    • Abdur Rahman was installed as the new Amir, retaining internal sovereignty but with British control over foreign affairs.
    • Afghanistan remained a buffer state, limiting Russian influence.

Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)

After World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution, Afghanistan, under Amir Amanullah Khan, sought full control over its foreign affairs. The British were weakened by the war and the unrest in India, which emboldened Afghanistan to assert its independence.

  • Causes:
    • Desire of Amir Amanullah to regain full sovereignty over Afghan foreign relations.
    • The British aim to maintain influence over Afghanistan as a buffer state post-WWI.
  • Course of the War:
    • Afghanistan launched an attack on British India in May 1919, leading to brief but intense conflict.
    • The British responded militarily but did not seek prolonged occupation due to overstretched resources.
  • Outcome:
    • Treaty of Rawalpindi (August 1919): Afghanistan regained complete control over its foreign policy, marking its full independence from British influence.
    • Amanullah Khan consolidated his power and initiated modernization efforts in Afghanistan.

John Lawrence and the Policy of Strategic Non-Intervention

The experiences of the First Anglo-Afghan War deeply influenced subsequent British frontier policy. John Lawrence, serving as the Chief Commissioner of Punjab (1864–1869), adopted a strategy of deliberate non-intervention, informed by practical considerations and confidential knowledge of the region’s socio-political dynamics. The policy focused minimal interference in Afghan internal affairs and a recognition of the Afghan desire for autonomy.

When Dost Mohammed passed away in 1863, Lawrence refrained from influencing the succession dispute, adhering to the principles of non-intervention: maintaining peace along the border and ensuring that no Afghan claimant sought external assistance. This approach facilitated the peaceful consolidation of Sher Ali Khan’s rule and fostered cordial relations between British India and Afghanistan. Lawrence’s strategy reflected a nuanced understanding that stability at the frontier was best achieved through restraint rather than aggressive intrusion.

Lord Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve

By the 1870s, British concerns regarding Russian expansionism persisted, prompting a more assertive stance under Lord Lytton, Viceroy of India (1876-1880). Lytton’s approach, sometimes termed “assertive aloofness,” sought to establish clearly demarcated borders and solidify British influence in Afghanistan while avoiding direct annexation. His policy aimed to safeguard India’s frontiers through preferential treaties and strategic diplomacy rather than large-scale occupation.

Lytton’s initiatives led to the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880). The British sought a preferential agreement with Sher Ali Khan, but the Afghan Amir maintained cordial relations with both Britain and Russia and refused to host a British diplomatic representative in Kabul. Lytton perceived this as a threat to British strategic interests and ordered a military expedition into Afghanistan. Sher Ali fled, and his son, Yakub Khan, signed the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879.

Anglo Afghan War and Treaty of Gandamak

The Treaty of Gandamak formalized British influence over Afghan foreign policy. It stipulated that Afghanistan’s international relations would be advised by the British, allowed a permanent British envoy in Kabul, and ensured British assistance in the event of external threats. Yakub Khan was compelled to abdicate due to domestic opposition, prompting a British reoccupation of Kabul and Kandahar. Abdur Rahman was installed as the new Amir, marking a period of relative stability. However, proposals for further partitioning Afghanistan were abandoned, and successive administrations, including Lord Ripon’s, ultimately preserved Afghanistan as a buffer state.

British Military Presence and Frontier Administration

Throughout the late nineteenth century, British India faced continued challenges in stabilizing the northwest frontier. The occupation of Hunza and Nagar in the Gilgit Valley (1891-1892) heightened tensions with Afghan Amir Abdur Rahman. To formalize borders and secure strategic control, the Durand Line Agreement of 1893 was signed, delineating territories between British India and Afghanistan. The agreement granted Abdur Rahman control over certain districts and increased subsidies, though tribal resistance persisted.

From 1893 to 1898, British forces were stationed in key passes such as Malakand and Chitral to contain insurgencies. Viceroy Curzon, between 1899 and 1905, implemented a policy of withdrawal and concentration, wherein forward positions were handed over to local militias under British supervision. This approach created stability and reduced direct British exposure to tribal conflicts. Curzon also established the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) under direct administration, providing a more structured governance framework. The NWFP would later become part of Pakistan following partition in 1947, maintaining relative regional stability thanks to these policies.

Anglo Afghan War UPSC 

In the twentieth century, Afghanistan gradually asserted its independence over foreign relations. Following the assassination of Habibullah in 1919, Amanullah Khan launched a conflict with British India, ultimately securing Afghan autonomy with the 1921 settlement. These developments underscored the limits of imperial influence and the enduring significance of Afghanistan as a buffer state in South and Central Asia.

Overall, the history of Anglo-Afghan relations and British frontier policy highlights the delicate balance between strategic imperatives, local autonomy, and the costs of military intervention. The lessons learned shaped subsequent British engagement with the region and influenced policies that continued well into the twentieth century, leaving a lasting legacy on the geopolitical landscape of South Asia.

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Anglo Afghan War FAQs

Q1: Who won the Anglo-Afghan War?

Ans: The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842) ended with the British retreating and Dost Mohammed regaining the throne, so Afghanistan emerged victorious.

Q2: Who won the Second Anglo-Afghan War?

Ans: The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880) ended with the British establishing influence over Afghan foreign policy through the Treaty of Gandamak, but Afghanistan retained internal sovereignty under Amir Abdur Rahman.

Q3: What were the Anglo-Afghan wars?

Ans: The Anglo-Afghan Wars were conflicts between the British Empire and Afghanistan in the 19th century, aimed at controlling Afghan territory and preventing Russian influence in India.

Q4: Why did the Anglo-Afghan War take place?

Ans: The Anglo-Afghan Wars occurred due to British fears of Russian expansion into Afghanistan and the need to secure India’s northwest frontier.

Q5: What was the Treaty of Gandamak?

Ans: The Treaty of Gandamak (1879) established British control over Afghanistan’s foreign affairs, stationed a British envoy in Kabul, and provided financial aid to the Afghan Amir.

UPSC Daily Quiz 16 October 2025

October 16, 2025
UPSC Daily Quiz

The Daily UPSC Quiz by Vajiram & Ravi is a thoughtfully curated initiative designed to support UPSC aspirants in strengthening their current affairs knowledge and core conceptual understanding. Aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, this daily quiz serves as a revision resource, helping candidates assess their preparation, revise key topics, and stay updated with relevant issues. Whether you are preparing for Prelims or sharpening your revision for Mains, consistent practice with these Daily UPSC Quiz can significantly enhance accuracy, speed, and confidence in solving exam-level questions.

[WpProQuiz 97]  

UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Kadamba Dynasty, Founder, Capital, Time Period, Ruler, Language

October 16, 2025
Kadamba Dynasty

The Kadamba dynasty was an ancient ruling dynasty of South India that emerged in the Western Ghats region, with its capital at Banavasi in present-day Karnataka. Established around 345 CE, the Kadambas ruled large parts of South India until approximately 525 CE, though some sources extend their influence to 540 CE. The dynasty is credited with laying the foundations of Kannada political and cultural identity, shaping early South Indian polity, literature, religion, and art. The founder of the Kadamba dynasty was Mayurasarma, also known as Mayurasharma. Regardless of their origins, the Kadambas established a stable political framework and contributed significantly to the socio-cultural development of South India. In this article, we are going to cover the Kadamba Dynasty, its origin, its rulers, administration, art and architecture and its legacy. 

Kadamba Dynasty 

The Kadamba dynasty occupies a critical place in South Indian history, marking the emergence of Kannada identity and regional governance. From a modest chieftaincy in Banavasi, the Kadambas established a lasting kingdom, promoted art and literature, advanced agriculture and trade, and fostered social and religious harmony.

The dynasty exemplifies the evolution of early medieval South Indian polity, showing the interplay of decentralization, military organization, cultural patronage, and economic development. Its contributions to Kannada literature, temple architecture, and societal organization remain relevant for understanding the historical foundations of Karnataka and the broader South Indian context.

Kadamba Dynasty Overview

Aspect Details

Name of Dynasty

Kadamba Dynasty

Founder

Mayurasarma (Mayurasharma)

Period of Rule

345 CE – 525 CE (some sources extend to 540 CE)

Capital

Banavasi (later shifted to Kolar)

Region of Origin

Banavasi, Karnataka (Western Ghats region)

Major Ruler

Kakusthavarma (reigned c. 425–450 CE)

Extent of Kingdom

Parts of present-day Karnataka, Goa, and northern Tamil Nadu

Political Features

Decentralized administration; local chieftains and governors (Vishayapatis) had autonomy

Military Strength

Army of cavalry, infantry, elephants, and chariots

Economy

Agrarian, based on rice cultivation, land revenue, internal and external trade; issued coins

Main Occupations

Agriculture, cattle rearing, trade, artisan industries (weaving, pottery, metalwork)

Society

Varna-based; Brahmins held high status; women had property rights and educational access

Religion

Hinduism and Jainism; known for religious tolerance

Language and Literature

Promoted Sanskrit, Prakrit, and early Kannada; earliest Kannada writings emerged

Art and Architecture

Built Hindu temples and Jain basadis, e.g., Kolaramma and Kedareshwara temples

Cultural Contribution

Patronized art, sculpture, music, and dance; promoted Kannada culture and literature

Decline

Attacks from Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Gangas in the 6th century CE

Legacy

Foundation for later Kannada dynasties like the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Hoysalas

Kadamba Dynasty Origin

The Kadamba dynasty’s rise is related with the story of Mayurasarma, who, according to legend, did not belong to a priestly caste. Despite this, his courage, strategic vision, and leadership abilities allowed him to carve out an independent kingdom in the rugged terrain of Banavasi in the Western Ghats. Banavasi was already an important cultural and religious center, hosting Hindu temples and Jain monasteries even before the Kadambas established their rule.

Under Kakusthavarma, arguably the most illustrious Kadamba ruler, the kingdom reached its territorial and political zenith. His reign saw the extension of the kingdom into Malnad, coastal Karnataka, and northern Tamil Nadu. Kakusthavarma moved the capital from Banavasi to Kolar, reflecting the growing administrative and strategic significance of the region. Kakusthavarma provided patronage to Jain scholars and constructed numerous Jain basadis, reflecting the dynasty’s policy of religious tolerance and intellectual cultivation. The Kadambas expanded their kingdom both militarily and diplomatically, forging alliances and consolidating control over neighboring territories. The stability they achieved allowed for the flourishing of culture, literature, and administrative innovations.

Kadamba Dynasty Rulers

The Kadamba dynasty had nearly 18 identified rulers over approximately four centuries:

  • Mayurasarma (c. 345 CE):  Founder of Kadamba Dynasty. He established Banavasi as the capital and laid the foundation of the dynasty. Little is known about his military campaigns or administrative achievements, but his ability to establish a lasting kingdom marks him as an important figure.
  • Kakusthavarma (c. 425-450 CE): Considered the greatest Kadamba ruler. He extended the kingdom, shifted the capital to Kolar, promoted Jainism, and patronized scholars. His court poet, Durvinita, documented his reign in Kakusthava Charite, offering invaluable historical insight.
  • Kakusthavarma II: Ruled for over 30 years; led military campaigns against the Gangas of Talakad and Vokkaligas of Balipete.
  • Shivachitta I : Known for military campaigns against the Pallavas and Gangas.  He resisted invasions by Chalukya king Pulakeshin II.
  • Butihalla Kadamba : Ruled in the early to mid-7th century CE.

Other rulers include Ruttaraja, Madhava, Jayaraja, and Mayurasharma II. Successive attacks by the Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Gangas gradually weakened the Kadamba dynasty, leading to its decline. Initially defensive in their military approach, later rulers adopted more aggressive campaigns but could not withstand combined pressures from emerging regional powers.

Kadamba Dynasty Administration

The Kadamba administration was decentralized, allowing local chieftains significant autonomy. The kingdom was divided into vishayas, each governed by a Vishayapati, who reported directly to the king. Villages (gramas) were managed by gramapatis, while towns (nagaras) were led by Nagareikas.

Officials such as adhikarana, kara, and maha-kara maintained records, assessed taxes, and supervised state projects. Local rulers collected bali, a form of tax, from towns and villages, which varied based on agricultural output or economic activity.

The Kadamba army, including cavalry, infantry, chariots, and elephants, protected the kingdom. Generals were integral to both military and administrative functions, enjoying land grants and honorifics.

The rulers encouraged trade, commerce, and artisan activities. Guilds and associations flourished, suggesting a vibrant internal and external trade network. Religious tolerance was a hallmark of Kadamba rule, with support extended to both Hindu and Jain institutions.

Kadamba Dynasty Economy

Agriculture dominated the Kadamba economy, primarily rice cultivation. Land grants (agraharas) were given to landlords and temples. Other agricultural produce included coffee and chili peppers. Taxes formed the main revenue source, supplemented by cattle rearing and minor forest products such as honey and wax.

Trade flourished via land and sea routes, encompassing internal commerce (agricultural surplus) and external trade (luxury goods). Artisans engaged in weaving, metalwork, pottery, oil extraction, salt production, and betel nut processing. Coin issuance facilitated commerce, while artisans and traders often enjoyed high social status.

The Kadambas actively supported industries and crafts to meet royal, military, and commercial demands. Taxes on trades, artisans, and industries provided further revenue.

Kadamba Dynasty Society

Kadamba society followed a varna-based system:

  • Brahmins: Priestly class; high status, tax privileges, key advisors.
  • Kshatriyas: Rulers, soldiers, and administrators.
  • Vaishyas: Merchants, traders, and landowners; economically influential.
  • Shudras: Majority population; engaged in manual and service occupations.

Other artisan castes enjoyed privileges and were supported by the state. Women had property rights, access to education, and sometimes acted as donors or authors. Religious tolerance between Hinduism and Jainism was prevalent. Slavery existed but in limited numbers.

Kadamba Dynasty Culture and Religion

The Kadambas patronized Hinduism and Jainism, constructing temples and basadis. Notable structures include the Kolaramma and Kedareshwara temples and Jain temples at Shravanabelagola and Halebid.

The dynasty promoted art, music, dance, literature, and sculpture. Court poets like Durvinita and Ravikirti composed Sanskrit and Prakrit works, while early Kannada writings emerged during this period. Pala-style paintings and murals flourished, reflecting a blend of regional and pan-Indian artistic traditions.

Performing arts, music, and dance were integral to court life. Religious and cultural tolerance attracted scholars and artists, creating a cross-pollination of ideas and strengthening the Kannada cultural identity.

Kadamba Dynasty Art and Architecture

Kadamba architecture featured Hindu temples with early South Indian style, later influencing Chalukya and Hoysala designs. Jain basadis reflected simplicity and spiritual aesthetics. Stone sculptures and inscriptions provide insight into the socio-political, religious, and economic life of the period.

The Kadambas encouraged the creation of artisan guilds, which advanced metalwork, pottery, weaving, and craft industries, integrating art with economic activity.

Kadamba Dynasty Decline and Legacy

The decline of the Kadambas resulted from continuous invasions and pressure from Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Gangas. By the mid-6th century CE, Kadamba political dominance waned. However, their cultural, literary, and administrative legacies persisted.

The Kadambas laid the foundation for later Kannada dynasties such as the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Hoysalas. They fostered early Kannada literature, promoted religious tolerance, and initiated administrative systems that influenced South Indian polity for centuries.

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Kadamba Dynasty FAQs

Q1: Who was the founder of the Kadamba dynasty?

Ans: The Kadamba dynasty was founded by Mayurasarma (also known as Mayurasharma).

Q2: What is the timeline of the Kadamba dynasty?

Ans: The Kadamba dynasty ruled approximately from 345 CE to 525 CE, with some sources extending its timeline to 540 CE.

Q3: Who defeated the Kadamba dynasty?

Ans: The decline of the Kadamba dynasty was caused by attacks from the Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Gangas.

Q4: Who were the rulers of the Kadamba dynasty?

Ans: Notable rulers of the Kadamba dynasty include Mayurasarma, Kakusthavarma, Kakusthavarma II, Shivachitta I, Butihalla Kadamba, and others such as Ruttaraja, Madhava, Jayaraja, and Mayurasharma II.

Seasons in India, Summer, Winter, Monsoon, Autumn, Impact

October 16, 2025
Seasons in India

India, located between latitudes 8°N and 37°N, experiences diverse climatic conditions due to its vast size, varied topography, and geographical location. The country witnesses a rhythmic pattern of weather changes, collectively known as seasons. These seasonal variations influence agriculture, lifestyle, festivals, and even economic activities. India’s climate system is mainly governed by monsoons, solar radiation, and geographical factors like mountains and oceans, creating distinct seasonal divisions observed across the subcontinent.

Seasons in India

India’s seasonal cycle is determined mainly by the monsoon system and solar movement. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) divides the Indian year into four main seasons-Winter, Summer (Pre-Monsoon), Monsoon (Rainy Season), and Post-Monsoon (Retreating Monsoon or Autumn). Each season plays a crucial role in shaping India’s ecological balance, food production, and natural processes. These transitions are guided by variations in the position of the sun and the southwest and northeast monsoon winds.

Seasons in India Classification

According to the IMD classification, India’s annual climate cycle is shaped by the movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), monsoon winds, and solar heating variations. India’s year can be broadly divided into four major seasons:

  1. Winter Season (December to February)
  2. Summer or Pre-Monsoon Season (March to May)
  3. Southwest Monsoon Season (June to September)
  4. Post-Monsoon or Retreating Monsoon Season (October to November)

Traditional and Regional Seasonal Divisions:

According to the Indian traditional calendar (Hindu Panchang), the year is divided into six seasons (Ritus):

  1. Vasanta (Spring)- Mid-February to Mid-April
  2. Grishma (Summer)- Mid-April to Mid-June
  3. Varsha (Monsoon)- Mid-June to Mid-August
  4. Sharad (Autumn)- Mid-August to Mid-October
  5. Hemant (Pre-winter)- Mid-October to Mid-December
  6. Shishir (Winter)- Mid-December to Mid-February

Winter Season (January-February)

During winter, northern India experiences cold temperatures due to the southward movement of the sun and influence of Western Disturbances. The average temperature ranges from 10°C - 15°C in the plains to below freezing in the Himalayas and northern regions. The IMD's "Annual climate summary 2023" reported that the winter season (January-February 2023) was unusually warm, with an average temperature anomaly of +0.83°C above the long-term average. While there was below-normal rainfall for the country as a whole (45% below LPA).

  • Western Disturbances, originating in the Mediterranean region, bring light rain and snow to northwest India.
  • Cold waves affect the Indo-Gangetic plains, while southern India remains relatively warm.
  • Rabi crops like wheat and mustard thrive due to cool and dry conditions.

Summer Season or Pre-Monsoon (March-May)

Summer marks the transition to monsoon. Temperatures rise sharply due to increased solar radiation and dry continental winds.

  • Maximum temperatures exceed 40°C in central and northwestern India.
  • Loo winds blow across the plains, and pre-monsoon showers (Mango showers) occur in Kerala and coastal Karnataka.
  • Nor’westers, local thunderstorms, are common in eastern India, especially West Bengal and Assam.
  • The Thar Desert low-pressure zone begins forming, which later attracts the southwest monsoon winds.

Types of Monsoon Seasons in India

These monsoons result from the differential heating of land and sea, coupled with Earth’s rotation and pressure systems. India’s monsoon system consists of two main branches:

  1. Southwest Monsoon (June-September): Originating in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, responsible for major rainfall.
  2. Northeast Monsoon (October-December): Brings rain to Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Andhra Pradesh. 

Southwest Monsoon Season (June-September)

This is India’s most significant climatic phase, accounting for nearly 75% of the annual rainfall. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) 2023 report stated all-India rainfall was 94% of the LPA (87 cm), with deficits in Eastern and Northeastern India and near-normal rainfall elsewhere

  • The Southwest Monsoon originates due to differential heating of land and sea and is guided by the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and monsoon trough.
  • It advances over Kerala around June 1.
  • The monsoon withdraws from northwestern India first, typically starting in mid-September, and the process completes later in October.
  • The Bay of Bengal branch brings heavy rainfall to eastern and northeastern India, while the Arabian Sea branch covers western India.
  • States like Meghalaya, Assam, and Kerala receive high rainfall annually.
  • The Burst of the Southwest Monsoon marks the rapid onset of monsoon rains over India, usually in early June. It occurs when the monsoon winds reach the Indian subcontinent from the Arabian Sea, bringing heavy rainfall within days.

Retreating Monsoon Season (October-December)

After September, the monsoon withdraws from northwestern India, leading to a transitional climate known as the Retreating Monsoon or Post-Monsoon Season. An Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) report for the 2023 Southwest Monsoon stated that 15 low-pressure systems formed during that season (June-September), reflecting increased frequency linked to warming sea-surface temperatures

  • The northeast monsoon winds dominate southern India, especially Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Puducherry, contributing up to 50% of Tamil Nadu’s annual rainfall.
  • Cyclonic disturbances from the Bay of Bengal frequently affect eastern coasts during this season.
  • Conditions gradually become cooler, marking the onset of winter.

Seasons in India Geographical Influence

India’s seasonal variations are significantly shaped by its geography. The formation and variation of seasons in India result from complex geographical and atmospheric factors.

  • Latitude: India’s latitudinal extent (8°N-37°N) creates tropical and subtropical climate zones.
  • Altitude: Higher regions like the Himalayas experience severe cold and snowfall.
  • Distance from the Sea: Coastal regions enjoy moderate climates due to maritime influence.
  • Jet Streams: The Subtropical Westerly Jet (SWJ) influences winter, while the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) impacts monsoon circulation.
  • Himalayas: Act as a climatic barrier, blocking cold Central Asian winds and guiding monsoon flow and maintaining a moderate climate in the plains.
  • Ocean Currents: Warm and cold currents regulate humidity and rainfall along India’s coastlines
  • The Thar Desert creates low-pressure zones that attract monsoon winds.
  • The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats influence rainfall distribution, with windward slopes receiving high rainfall and leeward sides facing drought.
  • Coastal regions experience less temperature variation, while inland areas face extreme seasonal contrasts.
  • Northeast India receives heavy monsoon rainfall, particularly in Meghalaya (Mawsynram- world’s wettest place).
  • In Western India Hot arid conditions prevail, majorly in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Seasons in India Impact on Agriculture

India’s agriculture is closely tied to its seasons. Seasonal variations dictate irrigation demand, cropping patterns, and rural employment, forming the backbone of India’s agrarian economy.

  • Rabi crops (winter crops): Wheat, barley, mustard, gram- sown in October to December, harvested in March-April.
  • Kharif crops (monsoon crops): Rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane-sown with the onset of monsoon and harvested in autumn.
  • Zaid crops: Watermelons, cucumbers, and vegetables grown between Rabi and Kharif seasons.
  • The RBI’s 2023 Annual Report stated that deficient monsoon rainfall in 2023 (June-September) was a challenge. However, it noted that the total Foodgrain production for 2023-2024 was estimated to be higher than the previous year due to good production of crops like rice, wheat, and millets.

Seasons in India Impact on Economy

The majority of India’s workforce depends on agriculture, making monsoon performance critical to economic growth. Economic activities like Fisheries and hydropower sectors also depend on monsoon patterns. Adequate monsoon ensures stable food production, reduces inflation, and boosts rural income. However, erratic rainfall can lead to droughts or floods, disrupting the economy. Power generation, manufacturing, and transport also rely on seasonal stability, particularly water availability from monsoon-fed rivers and reservoirs.

Seasons in India Impact of Climate Change

Climate change has significantly altered India’s traditional seasonal patterns. These trends threaten food security, water availability, and climate resilience, requiring adaptive strategies and robust forecasting systems.

  • IMD reported India's average temperature has risen by approximately 0.7°C between 1901 and 2018. Globally, 2023 was a record-breaking hot year at 1.45°C above the pre-industrial average.
  • Heatwaves and unseasonal rains have increased, while the monsoon onset has become erratic.
  • IPCC AR6 (2021) projects intensified extreme rainfall events and shorter, more intense monsoon spells.
  • Melting Himalayan glaciers are altering river flow patterns and snowmelt-dependent agriculture.
  • The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warns that India’s summer temperatures may rise.

Seasons in India Government Policies

To manage seasonal variations and climate impact, the government has implemented several policies:

  • Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY): Enhances irrigation efficiency to reduce monsoon dependence.
  • Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP): Controls soil erosion and water runoff.
  • National Monsoon Mission: Improves forecasting accuracy using scientific models.
  • National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC, 2008): Includes eight sub-missions like the National Water Mission and Sustainable Agriculture Mission.
  • National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) (2015): Supports projects that build resilience in climate-sensitive sectors.
  • Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS): Provides agro-meteorological advisories to farmers.
  • National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS): Studies climate impact on Himalayan ecosystems and seasonal snow.
  • India’s Updated NDC (2022): Commits to reducing emissions intensity by 45% by 2030, aligning with Paris Agreement goals.

International Commitments:

India collaborates globally to strengthen its seasonal and climatic resilience.

  • Member of World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS).
  • Participates in South Asian Climate Outlook Forum (SASCOF) for regional seasonal forecasting.
  • India-UK and India-EU Climate Partnerships promote research on seasonal variability and adaptation.
  • UNFCCC commitments align with sustainable seasonal management and resilience-building strategies.

Seasons in India Challenges

India’s seasonal system faces multiple interlinked challenges due to climate change, oceanic fluctuations, and developmental pressures. Addressing these issues requires a balanced approach combining scientific innovation, community engagement, and strong institutional coordination.

  • Climate Variability and Extreme Weather
      • Challenge: Erratic monsoons, rising temperatures, droughts, and floods disrupt agriculture and water supply across India.
      • Way Forward: Expand the National Monsoon Mission, improve localized forecasts, and promote rainwater harvesting and watershed management.
  • Oceanic Phenomena Impacts
      • Challenge: El Niño reduces rainfall causing heatwaves; La Niña increases floods, affecting crops and rural incomes.
      • Way Forward: Strengthen ocean monitoring via INCOIS, adopt climate-resilient agriculture, and collaborate globally for forecasting.
  • Limited Climate Data Integration
      • Challenge: Data sharing is slow, rural areas lack forecast access, and fragmented databases delay responses.
      • Way Forward: Create a National Seasonal Data Grid, promote open-access platforms, and train communities in climate monitoring.
  • Agricultural Vulnerability
      • Challenge: Agriculture is highly climate-sensitive, with unpredictable monsoons reducing yields and income.
      • Way Forward: Implement climate-smart agriculture, link crop insurance to weather data, and strengthen KVKs for advisories.
  • Institutional and Policy Gaps
      • Challenge: Fragmented climate governance delays response and reduces local technical capacity.
      • Way Forward: Establish National Council for Climate Adaptation and mainstream seasonal resilience in development schemes.
  • Technological and Infrastructure Constraints
      • Challenge: Inadequate weather stations, outdated models, and poor rural communication reduce warning efficiency.
      • Way Forward: Invest in Doppler radar, AI forecasting, digital alerts, and disaster-resilient infrastructure.
  • Public Awareness and Behavioral Adaptation
      • Challenge: Low climate literacy leads to ignoring early warnings and poor adaptation.
      • Way Forward: Launch awareness campaigns, integrate climate education, and involve communities in local disaster management.
  • Financial and Resource Constraints
      • Challenge: Limited funds slow regional adaptation projects; dependence on central schemes restricts flexibility.
      • Way Forward: Increase state climate funds, promote public-private partnerships, and leverage international green finance.
      • Challenge: Seasonal changes intensify water scarcity, groundwater depletion, and poor inter-state coordination.
      • Way Forward: Accelerate Jal Jeevan Mission, use real-time basin management, and adopt efficient irrigation practices.
  • Urban Climate and Heat Islands
    • Challenge: Urbanization disrupts climate balance, increases heat, and worsens flooding during monsoons.
    • Way Forward: Integrate urban climate plans, promote green infrastructure, and develop city-specific monsoon management frameworks.

Seasons in India Cultural Significance

India’s seasonal changes are deeply intertwined with its culture. Festivals like Holi (Spring), Baisakhi (Spring), Onam (Monsoon), and Diwali (Autumn) celebrate the cycle of nature. Seasonal foods, attire, and rituals vary across regions, reflecting harmony with the environment. Ancient texts like the Rigveda and Kalidasa’s Ritusamhara poetically describe the beauty of India’s changing seasons, showcasing the deep connection between climate and civilization. Indian classical music’s ragas (like Megh Malhar and Basant) and literature also reflect seasonal moods, symbolizing the deep connection between nature and culture.

  • Winter: Associated with harvest festivals like Lohri and Makar Sankranti.
  • Summer: Marks festivals like Rath Yatra and Gangaur.
  • Monsoon: Celebrated with Onam, Teej, and Raksha Bandhan.
  • Post-Monsoon: Witnesses major festivities such as Durga Puja, Diwali, and Navratri.

Seasons in India UPSC 

India’s climate pattern is becoming increasingly unpredictable due to global warming and oceanic fluctuations. The government has adopted advanced forecasting systems and policy measures to enhance monsoon prediction and climate resilience.

  • National Monsoon Mission-III (MM-III) 2021 to 2026 implemented by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) in Pune, continues to focus on improving rainfall prediction using advanced models.
  • The National Climate Change Adaptation Fund supports projects to reduce climate risks in agriculture, water, and coastal sectors.
  • The Extended Range Forecast System (ERFS) provides forecasts for a time range of 7 to 30 days, enhancing preparedness against floods and droughts.
  • India has strengthened international climate cooperation under COP28 commitments, promoting regional data-sharing and joint research with WMO and SAARC Meteorological Centre.
  • Satellite-based rainfall tracking and AI-driven climate models are being used for accurate seasonal predictions. These technologies help improve early warning systems and adaptive planning for farmers.
  • As of 2025, India is witnessing a warming trend with longer summer spells and shifting rainfall patterns.
  • The IMD’s Climate Report 2024 recorded 202 as the second-warmest year with 6% below-normal monsoon rainfall. Northern India saw record heatwaves, while southern states faced severe water scarcity.
  • According to the State of Climate Report 2024, India’s annual mean temperature was 0.65°C above normal, marking its warmest year on record.
  • Monsoon rainfall (2024) was 106% of the Long Period Average (LPA), yet uneven, causing floods in Himachal Pradesh and droughts in Maharashtra.
  • The Ministry of Earth Sciences launched the Mission Mausam scheme with a total cost of ₹2,000 crore for the period 2024-2026, with ₹258 crore allocated for 2024-25. The scheme focuses on upgrading weather forecasting systems and infrastructure.
  • El Niño conditions persisted from mid-2023 into early 2024, reducing winter rainfall in northern India.
  • WMO 2024 forecast suggests a shift toward La Niña by mid-2025, which may bring stronger monsoon rainfall and cooler summer temperatures.

Seasons in India FAQs

Q1: How many main Seasons in India are there?

Ans: India has four main seasons: Winter, Summer, Southwest Monsoon, and Post-Monsoon, influenced by monsoons, latitude, and solar movement.

Q2: What causes Seasonal Variations in India?

Ans: Seasonal changes result from solar radiation, monsoon winds, Himalayas, ocean currents, latitude, altitude, and differential land-sea heating patterns.

Q3: What are India’s traditional six seasons?

Ans: According to Hindu calendar: Vasanta (Spring), Grishma (Summer), Varsha (Monsoon), Sharad (Autumn), Hemant (Pre-winter), and Shishir (Winter).

Q4: How do Seasons in India affect agriculture?

Ans: Rabi, Kharif, and Zaid crops depend on seasonal rainfall, temperature, and irrigation, directly impacting yields and rural incomes.

Q5: How is the Government managing climate change impact on Seasons in India?

Ans: Government policies like PMKSY, National Monsoon Mission, GKMS, and climate adaptation funds improve forecasting, irrigation, and seasonal resilience.

Key Facts about Uruguay

October 16, 2025
Key Facts about Uruguay

Uruguay Latest News

Recently, Uruguay's senate has passed a law decriminalising euthanasia.

About Uruguay

  • It is a country located on the southeastern coast of South America.
  • It is the only South American nation to be situated entirely south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Bordered by:  Argentina (west and southwest), Brazil (north and east); and by the South Atlantic Ocean to the southeast.

Geographical Features of Uruguay

  • Climate: It is characterized as a humid subtropical climate.
  • Terrain: It is influenced by the Pampas, these grasslands traditionally used for extensive livestock farming. It also consists of rolling plains, low plateaus, and hills.
  • It also consists of Haedo Ridge (Cuchilla de Haedo) in the north and Grande Ridge (Cuchilla Grande) in the southeast.
  • Major Rivers: Rio de la Plata/Parana River, Uruguay river (It forms the border between Uruguay and Argentina).
  • Uruguay's coast is influenced by the Brazil Current (warm, northward) and Malvinas (Falkland) Current.
  • Highest Point: Mount Catedral
  • Capital city: Montevideo

Source: TH

Uruguay FAQs

Q1: What is the capital of Uruguay?

Ans: Montevideo

Q2: Which countries share a border with Uruguay?

Ans: Argentina and Brazil

Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii

October 16, 2025
Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii

Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii Latest News

Researchers from the Thackeray Wildlife Foundation recently discovered a new species of snail named Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii, also known as Tilari hairy snail.

About Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii

  • It is a new species of hairy snail.
  • It was found in the evergreen Tilari forest region of Kolhapur district, Maharashtra.
  • It is found in leafy thickets and rocks of forests in the Western Ghats. 
  • It is named after Hayao Miyazaki, the legendary Japanese animator, filmmaker, and co-founder of Studio Ghibli, whose films beautifully capture the connection between humans and nature.
  • Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii is the first record of the genus Lagocheilus from the northern Western Ghats, extending its known distribution range by 540 km north into the Indian Peninsula. 
  • The habitat of these snails is very limited. Due to wildfires and deforestation, their habitat is threatened, and they are likely to become extinct.

Source: TOI

Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii FAQs

Q1: What is Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii?

Ans: A new species of hairy snail.

Q2: In which region was Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii discovered?

Ans: Tilari forest region, Kolhapur district, Maharashtra.

Q3: Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii is named after which famous personality?

Ans: It is named after Hayao Miyazaki, the legendary Japanese animator, filmmaker, and co-founder of Studio Ghibli.

Q4: The discovery of Lagocheilus hayaomiyazakii marks the first record of the genus Lagocheilus from which region?

Ans: Northern Western Ghats

World Anaesthesia Day 2025, Theme, Objectives, Significance

October 16, 2025
World Anaesthesia Day 2025

Every year on 16 October, the global healthcare community observes World Anaesthesia Day (also called Ether Day), commemorating the first public demonstration of ether anesthesia in 1846. This milestone heralded a transformation in medical surgery, enabling pain-free operations and fundamentally changing patient care. Despite nearly 180 years since, vast regions still lack access to safe anaesthetic care, highlighting the continuing relevance of this observance. 

World Anaesthesia Day 2025

World Anaesthesia Day celebrates the progress, challenges, and innovations in the field of anaesthesia. The day is marked by lectures, conferences, webinars, public awareness campaigns, and educational outreach by national anaesthesiology societies. The World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists (WFSA) leads global coordination, working closely with more than 134 national anaesthesia societies across over 150 countries. 

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 is not just a commemoration of a historic achievement; it is a call to action. The promise of anesthesia, pain-free surgery, safety, and survival, remains unfulfilled for billions. This day galvanizes the global medical community to press forward in ensuring universal access, improving safety, advancing innovation, and preparing our systems to meet the challenges of health emergencies. Recognition is key, but sustained investment and policy commitment will translate observance into tangible health equity.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 Theme

For 2025, the theme for World Anaesthesia Day is “Anaesthesiology in Health Emergencies.” This underscores the critical role anaesthesiologists play during crises- pandemics, natural disasters, mass casualty events, and other situations that strain health systems. It calls for strengthening training, preparedness, infrastructure, and global support for emergency anaesthesia services. This theme complements the WFSA’s advocacy focus for the year.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 History

The origin is celebrated to honor both its historical achievement and its enduring relevance in patient safety and medical progress.

  • October 16, 1846: At Massachusetts General Hospital, William T. G. Morton successfully administered diethyl ether to a patient before surgical removal of a tumor in the neck, making it the first recognized anesthetic use in modern surgery.
  • This event proved that surgery could be performed without pain, converting surgical practice from agony into precision and care.
  • Over the decades, anaesthesia has progressed from ether and chloroform to safe balanced techniques, regional blocks, and modern monitoring systems.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 Objectives

World Anaesthesia Day aims to achieve multiple purposes beyond commemorating history. These objectives drive events, campaigns, and policy dialogues every October 16.

  • Raise Awareness: Publicize the vital role of anaesthesia in surgery, pain management, and critical care.
  • Advocate for Access: Highlight that nearly 5 billion people globally lack access to safe anesthesia, pressing for equitable distribution of resources.
  • Promote Education & Innovation: Encourage research in anesthetic techniques, safety protocols, monitoring, and perioperative care.
  • Strengthen Emergency Preparedness: Under the 2025 theme, emphasize readiness and resilience of anaesthesia systems in health crises.
  • Recognize Anaesthesia Professionals: Celebrate and amplify visibility of anesthetists often working behind the scenes in vital roles.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 Significance

Anaesthesia is indispensable to modern medicine. It ensures that patients undergoing surgery or interventions do not experience pain, remain stable physiologically, and recover safely. Anaesthesiologists monitor vital functions, adjust medications, manage airway, and respond to emergencies. They also play central roles in intensive care, trauma care, obstetric analgesia, pain medicine, and resuscitation. Advances in monitoring, pharmacology, regional techniques, and safety protocols have made anaesthesia far safer than early years. In emergencies, efficient anaesthesia systems are crucial to save lives.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 Challenges

Despite progress, significant challenges persist globally, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Addressing these gaps is essential for universal health coverage and resilient healthcare systems.

  • Limited Access: It is estimated that around 5 billion people still lack access to safe anesthesia services. 
  • Human Resource Shortage: Many regions face acute deficits of trained anaesthesiologists or support staff.
  • Equipment and Infrastructure Gaps: Inadequate monitoring, oxygen supply, or emergency backup often hinder safe practice.
  • Quality and Safety Variability: Standards of care differ widely between regions; unsafe practices contribute to perioperative morbidity and mortality.
  • Emergency Preparedness: During disasters or epidemics, anesthesia systems may collapse without prior planning, affecting surgical and critical care response. The 2025 theme emphasizes this vulnerability.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 Celebration

To improve anaesthesia accessibility and safety, multiple initiatives are led by professional associations, institutions, and global bodies. These programs foster awareness, knowledge sharing, and system strengthening. World Anaesthesia Day is observed through varied activities:

  • WFSA Programs: The WFSA offers SAFE (Safer Anaesthesia From Education), Essential Pain Management, and Vital Anaesthesia Simulation Training (VAST) to build capacity in underserved areas.
  • Global Advocacy: Each year, WFSA partners with WHO and national societies to promote policy change, training funding, and equipment distribution.
  • Webinar Marathon (2025): On October 16, 2025, WFSA will host a series of webinars focusing on health emergency topics like trauma, respiratory support, obstetric emergencies, and perioperative safety.
  • Local Celebrations: Hospitals, medical colleges, and anaesthesia societies conduct seminars, poster competitions, public outreach, and social media campaigns across nations. 
  • Academic Events: Lectures, panel discussions, workshops, and conferences on anesthesia advances, safety, and innovation.
  • Public Awareness Campaigns: Infographics, videos, and social media hashtags (e.g., #WorldAnaesthesiaDay, #SafeAnaesthesia) to reach general public.
  • Institutional Honors: Hospitals recognize outstanding contributions by anaesthesiologists and promote teamwork across surgical teams.
  • Simulation Exercises: Emergency drill simulations in hospitals to test readiness of anesthesia teams in mass-casualty or epidemic scenarios.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 Impact

Since its adoption, World Anaesthesia Day has contributed to measurable improvements:

  • Increased visibility and recognition of anesthesiology as a public health discipline rather than a background service.
  • Strengthening of training programs in many countries, including simulation labs, audit systems, and safety guidelines.
  • Growth of collaborative networks across national societies for sharing best practices, mentorship, and resource support.
  • Policy influence: some countries have adopted standards, minimum equipment lists, and perioperative safety protocols partly driven by awareness raised on this day.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 Government Initiatives

India has taken several policy and regulatory steps to improve anaesthesia services, patient safety, and medical professional training. The Government Policies in India Related to Anaesthesia & Patient Safety are listed below:

  • The Indian Society of Anaesthesiologists (ISA) has promulgated National Monitoring Standards for anaesthesia in all sectors: these include prerequisites, basic standards, and desirable standards in equipment, training, and professional status for anaesthesia providers
  • The National Patient Safety Implementation Framework (NPSIF 2018-2025) is a government-endorsed framework that includes anaesthesia-related safety among its objectives. It aims to improve structural systems for quality, assess adverse events, ensure competent workforce, and promote standard operating procedures (like surgical safety checklist) in hospitals.
  • The National Medical Commission (NMC) is the regulatory body overseeing medical education and standards for physicians, including MD / PG specialization in anaesthesia. It influences seat allocations, curriculum standards, and institutional accreditation.
  • Recent regulation by the Indian Nursing Council (INC): in 2025, the INC implemented new regulations for a “Nurse Practitioner in Anaesthesia (NPA – Postgraduate Residency Program)” for registered nurses. This aims to standardize education, skill levels, and roles of nurses in anaesthesia.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 Global Partnerships

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 is also marked by several global initiatives and collaborations to strengthen anaesthesia care worldwide and in India:

  • The World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists (WFSA) runs a Fellowship Programme that has trained over 400 fellows from 62 countries in various subspecialties of anaesthesia over 25 years. This builds capacity in low- and middle-income countries.
  • World Health Summit (WHS) Regional Meeting was held in New Delhi from April 25–27, 2025, and focused on "Scaling Access to Ensure Health Equity," the meeting's agenda featured different topics, such as digital health, AI futures, and traditional medicine
  • The Labour Analgesia Declaration by WFSA emphasises that every pregnant patient has a right to pain relief during childbirth. This international advocacy is pushing countries including India to expand access to labour analgesia.
  • WFSA’s involvement in patient safety initiatives such as SAFE (Safer Anaesthesia From Education), the Vital Anaesthesia Simulation Training (VAST), and digital/simulation based education for non-technical skills has helped standardize and improve anaesthesia care in regions including India. 

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 UPSC

In 2025, World Anaesthesia Day is especially relevant for spotlighting vulnerabilities revealed by recent health emergencies like COVID-19, disaster events, and mass casualty incidents. The selected theme, “Anaesthesiology in Health Emergencies,” emphasizes that anesthetic systems must be resilient to surges, supply chain disruptions, and workforce stress. Many parts of the world are still under-resourced in anesthetic capacity, particularly in rural and remote areas. The day provides a focal moment to push governments, funding agencies, and institutions to invest in anesthesia infrastructure, training, and safety systems.

World Anaesthesia Day 2025 FAQs

Q1: When is World Anaesthesia Day 2025?

Ans: World Anaesthesia Day 2025, observed on 16 October, commemorates the first use of ether anesthesia in surgery in 1846.

Q2: What is the theme of World Anaesthesia Day 2025?

Ans: The theme “Anaesthesiology in Health Emergencies” highlights anaesthesiologists’ crucial role in managing crises like pandemics and mass casualties.

Q3: Why is World Anaesthesia Day important?

Ans: It raises awareness about safe anaesthetic care, training, innovation, and global efforts to ensure equitable surgical and pain management access.

Q4: Who leads World Anaesthesia Day celebrations globally?

Ans: The World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists (WFSA) coordinates worldwide events with over 134 national anaesthesia societies.

Q5: What challenges are highlighted on World Anaesthesia Day 2025?

Ans: Limited access, workforce shortage, equipment gaps, and emergency preparedness remain key challenges in global anaesthesia systems.

Exercise Samudra Shakti

October 16, 2025
Exercise Samudra Shakti

Exercise Samudra Shakti Latest News

The Indian Navy is hosting the fifth edition of Exercise, 'Samudra Shakti – 2025'  at Visakhapatnam.

About Exercise Samudra Shakti

  • It is a joint bilateral maritime exercise between India and Indonesia.
  • It is a key bilateral engagement aimed at enhancing interoperability, strengthening mutual understanding, and sharing best practices between the two navies.
  • It highlights the shared commitment of both nations towards maintaining stability and peace in the Indo-Pacific region.
  • India’s participation: The participating units include INS Kavaratti, an Anti-Submarine Warfare Corvette of the Eastern Fleet under the aegis of Eastern Naval Command (ENC). 
  • It consists of two phases
    • The harbour phase is aimed at building camaraderie and professional rapport that include Cross Deck Visits, Joint Yoga sessions, Friendly Sports fixtures, Professional Subject Matter Expert Exchanges (SMEE).
    • The Sea Phase will involve dynamic and complex maritime operations aimed at increasing tactical coordination, including Helicopter Operations, Air Defence Exercises, Weapon Firing Drills, Visit, Board, Search and Seizure (VBSS) exercises.
  • Other Exercises with Indonesia

Source: PIB

Exercise Samudra Shakti FAQs

Q1: What is Exercise Samudra Shakti?

Ans: A bilateral naval exercise between India and Indonesia.

Q2: What is the primary purpose of Exercise Samudra Shakti?

Ans: To enhance interoperability and cooperation between navies.

SAIME Initiative

October 16, 2025
SAIME Initiative

SAIME Initiative Latest News

Recently, a model of Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) in West Bengal’s Sundarbans has been conferred Global Technical Recognition by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.

About SAIME Initiative

  • The Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) is a multi-stakeholder partnership (MSP) to strengthen transformative processes in shrimp trade as a basis for the protection of mangrove ecosystems in West Bengal.
  • It is a climate-adaptive and conservation-linked livelihood initiative that integrates brackish water shrimp-based aquaculture with mangrove restoration.
  • It is an ecosystem-based, climate-adaptive, and conservation-linked livelihood approach.
  • Implemented by: It has been implemented in collaboration with Global Nature Fund (GNF), Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS), Naturland, and Bangladesh Environment & Development Society (BEDS),

What are Mangroves?

  • Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in coastal intertidal zones, primarily in tropical and subtropical regions.

Characteristics of Mangroves

  • Salt Tolerance: They possess specialised root structures, such as salt-filtering roots and salt-excreting leaves, to manage high salinity levels.
  • Aerial Roots (Pneumatophores): These roots help in respiration by obtaining oxygen from the air in waterlogged soils.
  • Prop Roots: Provide stability against tidal waves and storm surges.
  • Vivipary (Seed Germination): Seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree to overcome the challenge of germination in saline water.
  • Efficient Carbon Sequestration: Mangroves are among the most carbon-rich ecosystems, playing a vital role in mitigating climate change.
  • Ecological Significance: Mangrove forests act as a crucial buffer between land and sea, providing habitat for various marine and terrestrial species.

Source: TH

SAIME Initiative FAQs

Q1: Where is the SAIME initiative being implemented?

Ans: Sundarbans, West Bengal.

Q2: What is the main objective of the SAIME initiative?

Ans: To integrate mangrove conservation with sustainable aquaculture practices.

Military Combat Parachute System

October 16, 2025
Military Combat Parachute System

Military Combat Parachute System Latest News

Recently, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully tested the Military Combat Parachute System (MCPS) at 32,000 feet altitude.

About Military Combat Parachute System

  • It is indigenously developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
  • Organizations involved: It has been designed by DRDO’s Aerial Delivery Research and Development Establishment, Agra, and Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory, Bengaluru.

Features of Military Combat Parachute System

  • It has successfully undergone a combat freefall jump from an altitude of 32,000 feet.
  • It is the only parachute system currently in operational use by the Indian Armed Forces capable of deployment above 25,000 feet.
  • It consists of several enhanced tactical features, including a lower rate of descent and superior steering capabilities.
  • The system has compatibility with Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC),

Significance of Military Combat Parachute System

  • It enables paratroopers to safely exit aircraft, deploy parachutes at predetermined altitudes, navigate accurately, and land at designated zones.
  • It also provides the freedom of use against any adversary of our choice and is not susceptible to interference/denial of service by outside parties/nations.
  • It has opened doors for induction of Indigenous parachute systems.
  • This will also reduce dependency on other nations for its serviceability during times of conflict and war.

Source: PIB

Military Combat Parachute System FAQs

Q1: What is the primary purpose of a Military Combat Parachute System?

Ans: To deploy troops into combat zones.

Q2: What is the primary objective of DRDO?

Ans: To achieve self-reliance in critical defence technologies.

Daily Editorial Analysis 16 October 2025

October 16, 2025
Daily Editorial Analysis

Navigating the Global Economic Transformation

Context

  • The world’s normative economic consensus, the liberal, globalised order long anchored by the United States, is undergoing a profound transformation.
  • The intensifying strategic and economic rivalry between the U.S. and China has reconfigured global trade flows, financial systems, and geopolitical alliances.
  • This contest for supremacy is not merely a struggle for markets or influence; it represents the birth of a new geo-economic order.
  • The Global South, have the opportunity to craft a more equitable and sustainable model of global governance.

The Rise of State-Capital Entanglement and The Resurgence of Primordial Statecraft

  • The Rise of State-Capital Entanglement

    • One of the defining features of the new economic paradigm is the fusion of political power with concentrated corporate interests, a phenomenon that may be termed a state-capital Gordian knot.
    • Populist-autocrats across nations are increasingly subordinating national policy to the interests of oligopolies and crony capitalists.
    • In contrast to classical laissez-faire capitalism, where the state minimally intervenes and markets reward competitiveness, these regimes mortgage public assets and manipulate policy to serve a small economic elite.
    • Such plutocratic governance corrodes the social contract, deepens inequality, and undermines democratic institutions.

  • The Resurgence of Primordial Statecraft

    • The consolidation of crony capitalism has coincided with a revival of traditional power
    • The United States, under the banner of America First, has recalibrated its strategic and economic alignments to reclaim control over critical industries and supply chains.
    • From pressuring Taiwan to relocate semiconductor production, to securing access to rare earths and digital infrastructures, Washington is reasserting control over the arteries of global production.
    • Its geopolitical manoeuvres, from managing allies in Europe to influencing conflicts in West Asia, reveal an attempt to restore spheres of influence reminiscent of 20th-century imperialism.
    • The outcome has been an upsurge in regional conflicts and humanitarian crises, exposing the fragility of the current world order.

The Age of Digital Colonialism

  • Big Tech and cloud-capitalist enterprises have emerged as transnational actors capable of shaping political discourse and manipulating democratic processes.
  • Through control of data, digital infrastructure, and algorithmic governance, these entities have effectively siphoned off rents from global value chains.
  • The weaponisation of technological systems, evident in mechanisms like the AI Action Plan, the Cloud Act, and state-backed digital currencies, heralds a new era of digital colonialism.
  • While digital financial ecosystems promise efficiency, they simultaneously threaten the sovereignty of nation-states and blur accountability in political financing, enabling populist-autocrats to consolidate power.

Retreat of Developmental Aid and the Global Fallout

  • The withdrawal of developmental aid by wealthy nations has had catastrophic consequences for vulnerable populations.
  • G7 funding cuts, reductions in small enterprise grants, and slashed contributions to the World Food Programme have collectively deepened poverty and fuelled instability across the Global South.
  • These developments have spurred distress migration, expanded the recruitment base for militant groups, and weakened state legitimacy in fragile regions.
  • Economic retrenchment by the Global North thus opens strategic space for undemocratic powers to expand influence, particularly in Africa and Asia.

Opportunity Amid Disruption: The Role of the Global South

  • The ongoing disruptions also present an unprecedented opportunity for emerging economies — particularly India and China, to shape a new global compact.
  • The old neoliberal model, built on cheap labour, debt dependency, and environmental exploitation, has reached its limits.
  • The resulting inequality is stark: nearly half the world lives below the $6.85 poverty line, and hundreds of millions suffer hunger.
  • Populist leaders have weaponised these inequalities to rally support for authoritarianism, exploiting economic despair to erode democratic norms.
  • In this context, India and the Global South face a defining choice: to accept an unjust status quo or to collaboratively forge a New Economic Deal.

The Way Forward for India: The Need for Domestic Recalibration 

  • For India to actualise its potential within this evolving order, a domestic course correction is imperative.
  • The state must reclaim its role as a strategic driver of development, especially in critical sectors such as energy, infrastructure, data, defence, and agriculture.
  • The private sector, while essential, cannot alone resolve structural inequalities or pursue long-term national goals.
  • Strong anti-monopoly laws, sovereign wealth funds, and renewed investment in education, science, and public institutions are essential to ensure economic sovereignty.

Conclusion

  • As the old order of neoliberal globalisation unravels, a window opens for the Global South to shape a fairer and more resilient system.
  • India, situated at the intersection of tradition and modernity, democracy and development, must seize this moment.
  • By balancing state leadership with economic innovation, sovereignty with solidarity, and ambition with accountability, India can help chart a path towards a just and inclusive world order.

Navigating the Global Economic Transformation FAQs

Q1. What major shift is reshaping the global economic order?
Ans. The global economic order is being reshaped by the strategic and economic rivalry between the United States and China, leading to new power blocs and geo-economic realignments.

Q2. How are populist-autocrats influencing modern economies?
Ans. Populist-autocrats are fusing political power with corporate interests, creating systems where crony capitalists dominate policy and weaken democratic institutions.

Q3. What is meant by “digital colonialism”?
Ans. Digital colonialism refers to the domination of global economies and politics by Big Tech and digital infrastructures controlled by powerful nations and corporations, undermining national sovereignty.

Q4. How has the withdrawal of developmental aid affected the Global South?
Ans. Cuts in developmental aid have deepened poverty, triggered migration, and fuelled instability in many developing countries, especially in Africa and Asia.

Q5. What steps should India take to strengthen its position in the new world order?
Ans. India should strengthen state-led development, promote fair global reforms, invest in education and innovation, and pursue a genuinely non-aligned foreign policy.

Source: The Hindu

The ‘Critical Factor’ in India’s Clean Energy Ambitions

Context

  • India’s ambition to emerge as a global leader in clean energy and sustainable growth hinges on its ability to secure critical minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and Rare Earth Elements (REEs).
  • These minerals form the backbone of modern technologies, electric vehicles (EVs), solar panels, wind turbines, and energy storage systems, that drive the global transition towards low-carbon economies.
  • As India targets 500 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030 and net-zero emissions by 2070, ensuring a stable supply of these minerals has become a strategic and economic imperative.

The Importance of Critical Minerals in India’s Green Transition

  • Lithium and cobalt are key components of EV batteries, and India’s EV market is projected to grow at an impressive 49% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) from 2023 to 2030.
  • Supported by government initiatives such as the Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme (EMPS) 2024, the demand for batteries and energy storage solutions is expected to surge.
  • However, India’s near-total dependence on imports, almost 100% for lithium, cobalt, and nickel, and over 90% for REEs—poses significant vulnerabilities.
  • The dominance of China, which controls about 60% of global REE production and 85% of processing capacity, further amplifies strategic risks and highlights the urgency of achieving self-reliance.

Initiatives by India in the Field of Critical Minerals

  • India possesses significant untapped mineral potential, with lithium reserves identified in Jammu & Kashmir and Rajasthan, and REEs in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
  • The National Mineral Exploration Policy (NMEP) 2016 and the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act 2021 have accelerated exploration through private participation and advanced geophysical techniques.
  • The Geological Survey of India’s discovery of 5.9 million tonnes of inferred lithium resources in J&K marks a pivotal step towards domestic production.
  • Moreover, the auction of 20 critical mineral blocks in 2023, attracting both domestic and international investors, signals growing market confidence in India’s potential as a key player in the global mineral supply chain.

Investment and Industrial Policy in Mining

  • Investment in domestic mining forms the cornerstone of India’s critical mineral strategy.
  • Despite policy reforms, the mining sector’s contribution to India’s GDP, just 5% in 2022, lags far behind resource-rich economies like Australia, where mining contributes over 13%.
  • The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act 2023 has opened up private exploration, yet high operational costs, regulatory bottlenecks, and environmental challenges persist.
  • To bridge this gap, there is need for streamlined licensing, financial incentives, and production-linked subsidies that can attract private capital and technology partnerships.
  • The government’s National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM), backed by a ₹34,300 crore plan, is a significant step towards integrating exploration, mining, processing, and recycling.
  • State-backed enterprises like NMDC, IREL (India) Limited, and KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.) are diversifying into critical minerals and overseas acquisitions to strengthen supply chains.
  • However, the success of these initiatives depends on scaling private participation, technological innovation, and swift project execution.

The Path Forward for India to Build a Circular Economy

  • A circular economy, focused on recycling, recovery, and reuse, is essential for resilience. India generates nearly four million metric tonnes of e-waste annually, but a mere 10% is formally recycled.
  • This represents a massive opportunity to recover critical minerals from discarded electronics and batteries.
  • The Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022 set ambitious recycling targets, yet implementation gaps and infrastructure deficits hinder progress.
  • To overcome these barriers, India must modernise mining and processing infrastructure with mechanised equipment, automated plants, and efficient waste management systems.
  • Public-private recycling hubs can accelerate technological innovation, lower costs, and reduce environmental damage.
  • Integrating urban mining, recovering minerals from waste streams, into the broader critical mineral framework would both reduce import dependence and generate employment in green sectors.

Challenges and Policy Directions

  • While India’s policy trajectory is promising, several persistent challenges.
  • These include high exploration costs, regulatory delays, insufficient refining capacity, and weak enforcement of recycling norms.
  • Moreover, geopolitical competition for resources underscores the need for diversified international partnerships.
  • India must balance environmental sustainability with industrial expansion, ensuring that mining activities adhere to ecological and social safeguards.
  • Strengthening research and development (R&D) in mineral processing and battery technology will also be vital to achieving technological independence.

Conclusion

  • India’s clean energy transition, and its broader industrial transformation, depends on securing critical minerals through a dual strategy: developing domestic mining capacity and advancing a circular economy.
  • The National Critical Mineral Mission, alongside policy reforms and international collaborations, provides a strong foundation for this effort.
  • However, sustained progress will require robust state support, transparent governance, and public-private synergy.
  • By operationalising mining leases, modernising recycling systems, and investing in innovation, India can not only meet its renewable energy goals but also establish itself as a global leader in the green economy.

The ‘Critical Factor’ in India’s Clean Energy Ambitions FAQs

Q1. Why are critical minerals important for India’s clean energy transition?
Ans. Critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements are essential for manufacturing electric vehicles, solar panels, wind turbines, and energy storage systems that power India’s clean energy goals

Q2. What major policy initiative supports India’s exploration of critical minerals?
Ans. The National Mineral Exploration Policy (NMEP) 2016 supports India’s exploration of critical minerals by encouraging private participation and advanced survey technologies.

Q3. What is the purpose of the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM)?
Ans. The National Critical Mineral Mission aims to strengthen India’s value chains across exploration, mining, processing, and recycling to reduce import dependence and boost self-reliance.

Q4. How can recycling contribute to India’s mineral security?
Ans. Recycling can recover valuable minerals from e-waste and used batteries, reducing import dependence and promoting a sustainable circular economy.

Q5. What challenges does India face in achieving self-sufficiency in critical minerals?
Ans. India faces challenges such as high exploration costs, limited refining capacity, regulatory delays, and weak recycling infrastructure in achieving self-sufficiency in critical minerals.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 16 October 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Rare Earths: The New Flashpoint in the US-China Trade War

October 16, 2025
Rare Earths

Rare Earths Latest News

  • The ongoing China–US trade conflict has intensified over rare earth minerals, a critical component for high-tech industries.
  • China recently tightened restrictions on rare earth exports, prompting US President Donald Trump to threaten 100% tariffs in retaliation.

Rare Earths: Abundant in Nature, Critical in Technology, and Dominated by China

  • Rare earths refer to 17 metallic elements — from lanthanum (57) to lutetium (71), plus scandium (21) and yttrium (39) — known for their high density, conductivity, and thermal resistance.
  • They are divided into light and heavy rare earths, based on atomic weight, and form an essential subset of critical minerals vital to modern industries.

Why They Matter

  • These elements are indispensable, even in trace quantities, for a wide array of technologies — from smartphones, wind turbines, and electric vehicles to weapons systems, robotics, MRI scanners, and cancer treatment equipment.
  • Their unique properties make them irreplaceable components in both civilian and defence applications, underpinning the global clean energy and digital revolutions.
  • Rare earths typically occur in low concentrations, making extraction and refining expensive and environmentally complex.
  • This high cost limits the number of countries that can profitably mine and process them.

China’s Global Dominance

  • According to the International Energy Agency (IEA):
    • Over 60% of rare earth mining occurs in China.
    • More than 90% of global processing and refining capacity is also controlled by Beijing.
  • This near-monopoly gives China strategic leverage in global supply chains, making rare earths a central weapon in trade and geopolitical rivalries, especially with the United States.

Global Reserves, Limited Production

  • While Brazil, Australia, and India hold substantial rare earth reserves, their production remains minimal.
  • The reasons include:
    • Low economic viability due to high extraction costs, and
    • Environmental concerns, as rare earth mining is highly polluting and requires complex waste management systems.

China’s Rare Earth Dominance: Weaponising Trade Through Rare Earths

  • Beijing has pursued a deliberate industrial strategy to achieve near-total control over the mining and processing of these critical minerals, integrating them into its long-term economic and geopolitical planning.
  • China’s export restrictions, particularly on heavy rare earths like terbium (65) and dysprosium (66) — essential for defence and high-tech manufacturing — are part of a policy to use rare earths as a strategic trade weapon.
  • In response to US tariffs under President Donald Trump, Beijing has used its dominance in rare earths to gain leverage and escalation control in the ongoing US-China trade war.
  • China’s decades-long investment in rare earth mining, refining, and technology has created a complete supply chain monopoly.

New Restrictions on Rare Earth Exports and Impact on India

  • China has expanded its export control list to include five additional rare earth elements — holmium, erbium, thulium, europium, and ytterbium — along with related magnets and materials, bringing the total number of restricted elements to 12.
  • The Ministry of Commerce also added refining technologies to the control list and announced that foreign producers using Chinese rare earths must now comply with its new export rules.

Limited Impact on India—for Now

  • India’s exposure to rare earth supply disruptions is relatively limited, owing to low domestic consumption.
  • According to the Ministry of Mines, India imported 2,270 tonnes of rare earth elements in 2023–24, up 23% from 2019–20, with 65% sourced from China and 10% from Hong Kong.
  • The auto sector (particularly EVs) and the electronics industry have felt the sharpest impact from earlier Chinese restrictions in April.

India’s Domestic Initiatives and Future Plans

  • India’s rare earth production remains modest, led by state-owned IREL Ltd, which operates a processing unit with a capacity of over 10,000 tonnes per annum, compared to China’s 200,000 tonnes in 2023.
  • However, India is actively expanding its footprint:
    • Seven seabed blocks in the Andaman Sea have been auctioned for exploration and mining of polymetallic nodules and crusts that may contain heavy rare earths.
    • The Department of Atomic Energy has cleared plans for a Rare Earths Theme Park to establish pilot plants across the value chain.
    • Two major projects — the Rare Earth Permanent Magnet Park in Visakhapatnam and the Rare Earth and Titanium Theme Park in Bhopal — are being developed with central funding to strengthen India’s presence in this strategic sector.

Global Shifts Beyond China

  • Globally, efforts to diversify the rare earth supply chain are gaining traction:
    • The US is preparing an executive order to stockpile deep-sea metals from the Pacific seabed, reducing reliance on China for battery minerals and rare earths.
    • Japan, which faced Chinese curbs in the early 2010s, has since rebuilt its rare earth supply chains, offering a potential model for India and Western economies seeking independence from Beijing’s control.

Source: IE | IT

Rare Earths FAQs

Q1: Why are rare earths central to the US-China trade conflict?

Ans: China dominates global rare earth production and refining, giving it leverage over the US, which relies on these minerals for defence and high-tech industries.

Q2: What new export restrictions has China imposed?

Ans: Beijing added five new rare earths and key refining technologies to its export control list, tightening global supply ahead of upcoming trade talks with Washington.

Q3: How does this impact India?

Ans: India’s impact is limited due to low consumption, but auto and electronics sectors face pressure. India imports 65% of rare earths from China.

Q4: What steps is India taking to reduce reliance on China?

Ans: India has auctioned seabed blocks in the Andaman Sea and is developing rare earth theme parks in Vizag and Bhopal to expand domestic refining.

Q5: How are other countries responding to China’s dominance?

Ans: The US plans to stockpile seabed metals, while Japan has rebuilt its rare earth supply chain to diversify away from Beijing’s near-monopoly.

Google’s $15 Billion AI Data Centre in Andhra Pradesh: Powering India’s Digital Future

October 16, 2025
AI Data Centre

AI Data Centre Latest News

  • Google has announced a $15 billion investment over five years to establish an AI data centre in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh — its largest investment in India so far. 
  • Partnering with the Adani Group and Airtel, the project will include the development of a new international subsea gateway to strengthen digital connectivity.
  • The facility will become part of Google’s global network of AI data centres across 12 countries, supporting advanced computing and cloud services. 
  • The investment comes amid strained India–US relations and the government’s push for swadeshi (local) technology adoption. 
  • The initiative also raises policy questions about whether India should incentivise large compute infrastructure to bolster its AI ecosystem and digital sovereignty.

How AI Data Centres Differ from Traditional Ones

  • An AI data centre is different from a traditional data centre in terms of it being specifically tailor-made to support AI applications. 
  • Traditional data centres that rely on CPU-based servers for hosting websites, storage, and business applications.
  • However, AI data centres are designed to handle massive data processing and compute-intensive tasks like image generation, video analysis, and generative AI.
  • They are powered by high-performance GPUs, requiring stronger power infrastructure and advanced cooling systems, making them far more energy-intensive than conventional facilities.
  • According to an analysis, the new AI hub is expected to add $15 billion to US GDP (2026–2030) through increased AI and cloud adoption.
  • It will create economic and technological opportunities for both India and the US, marking a transformative leap in global AI capability.

Google’s AI Hub: Collaboration to Build India’s Clean-Energy Data Centre

  • Google’s AI data hub in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh is being developed with AdaniConneX and Airtel. 
  • The facility will use the same infrastructure that powers Google’s global services such as Search, Workspace, and YouTube.
  • AdaniConneX, a joint venture between Adani Enterprises and EdgeConneX, will lead the construction and operation of the data centre network across India and provide 100% green energy for the AI hub.

Subsea Gateway and Connectivity Expansion

  • A major component of Google’s investment is the construction of a new international subsea gateway on India’s eastern coast.
  • Multiple international subsea cables will land in Visakhapatnam, connecting to Google’s global network of over two million miles of terrestrial and subsea cables.
  • Airtel will assist Google in developing this connectivity backbone to enhance international data flow and latency performance.

Sustainability and Energy Infrastructure

  • The project includes co-investments in new transmission lines, renewable power generation, and energy storage systems in Andhra Pradesh.
  • Both companies emphasised their commitment to clean energy and grid resilience, stating that the initiative will:
    • Support the AI data centre’s clean energy operations,
    • Strengthen India’s electricity grid, and
    • Promote energy security and sustainable infrastructure development in the region.

Strategic Impact

  • The partnership positions India as a key player in global AI infrastructure, combining Google’s technological expertise, Adani’s green energy leadership, and Airtel’s telecom reach.
  • It underscores a shared commitment to sustainability, digital capacity expansion, and innovation-driven growth within India’s evolving AI ecosystem.

India’s Data Centre Boom: Growth Potential, Energy Challenges, and the Nuclear Option

  • India’s data centre market is valued at around $10 billion, generating $1.2 billion in FY24.
  • A report projects an addition of 795 MW of new capacity by 2027, raising total capacity to 1.8 GW.
  • The sector is poised for robust growth driven by cloud computing, AI adoption, and digital infrastructure investments.

Policy Concerns Over Incentives and Job Creation

  • Despite its promise, policymakers are debating whether to offer incentives for data centres due to their high energy demand and capital intensity with limited employment potential.
  • However, experts claimed that Google’s AI data centre in Visakhapatnam will create 1.88 lakh direct and indirect jobs, signalling strong regional economic benefits.

Energy Demand and Cost Pressures

  • AI data centres are exceptionally energy-intensive. 
  • The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that global data centre power usage could double by 2026, posing challenges to achieving net-zero or carbon-negative goals by 2030.
  • Power infrastructure dominates operational economics:
    • 40% of total capex goes toward electrical systems.
    • 65% of operating costs stem from electricity consumption.
    • Setting up 1 MW of data centre capacity in India costs between ₹60–70 crore, highlighting the need for cost-efficient and sustainable energy sources.

The Renewable and Nuclear Debate

  • While most firms rely on renewable energy, it faces limitations—intermittent generation and inadequate storage capacity.
  • This has led policymakers to explore nuclear energy as a clean, round-the-clock power source capable of meeting AI-era electricity demands.
  • The Indian government is reportedly open to using nuclear power for data centres, mirroring emerging trends in the United States, where AI-led data centre growth is accelerating reliance on nuclear-backed power grids.

Conclusion

  • India’s data centre expansion represents a balancing act between digital transformation goals, energy security, and environmental commitments.
  • The next phase of policy will determine whether India can become a global AI infrastructure hub while ensuring sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective energy to power its growing digital economy.

Source: IE | BBC | ToI

AI Data Centre FAQs

Q1: What is Google building in Andhra Pradesh?

Ans: Google is investing $15 billion to build an AI data centre in Visakhapatnam, partnering with Adani and Airtel to power it entirely with clean energy.

Q2: How are AI data centres different from traditional ones?

Ans: AI data centres use GPU-powered systems to process massive data for generative AI, requiring stronger power, cooling, and higher energy efficiency than CPU-based traditional centres.

Q3: What is Google’s partnership with Adani and Airtel about?

Ans: AdaniConneX will build and operate the green data hub, while Airtel will assist in developing subsea connectivity linking Visakhapatnam to Google’s global cable network.

Q4: What are the sustainability goals of the project?

Ans: The data hub will run on 100% renewable power, co-invest in new transmission lines, and strengthen India’s electricity grid for sustainable infrastructure growth.

Q5: Why is nuclear energy part of India’s data centre debate?

Ans: Given the high power needs of AI hubs, India is exploring nuclear as a clean, round-the-clock energy source to complement intermittent renewable generation.

Silent Valley National Park

October 16, 2025
Silent Valley National Park

Silent Valley National Park Latest News

Six new species of dragonflies and damselflies were found in Silent Valley National Park during an odonate survey held recently.

About Silent Valley National Park

  • It is a stretch of pristine wet evergreen forest located along the southwest corner of the Nilgiris in South India, in the State of Kerala.
  • It is one of the last undisturbed tracts of tropical rainforest in India. 
  • It constitutes the centerpiece of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, sanctified as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2012.
  • It covers an area of approximately 237.52 sq.km.
  • The altitude of the park varies between 658 to 2383 meters. 
  • It is nourished by the Kunthipuzha River, which meanders through the dense forest.
  • The valley is said to be "silent" because of the absence of the cicadas, a type of insect that produces a loud buzzing sound in many forests.
  • Vegetation: It has four types of vegetation "West Coast tropical evergreen forest, southern sub-tropical broad-leaved hill forest, montane wet temperature forest, and grasslands.
  • The park's dense forests, riverine ecosystems, and high-altitude grasslands provide a habitat for a variety of species, many of which are endemic to the Western Ghats.
  • Flora: 
    • The flora of the valley includes about 1000 species of flowering plants, 107 species of orchids, 100 ferns and fern allies, 200 liverworts, 75 lichens, and about 200 algae.
    • Plants of high medicinal value as well as the towering Culinea trees are also found here. 
  • Fauna:  
    • The park is famous for its population of lion-tailed macaques, an endangered primate species that is endemic to the Western Ghats. 
    • Other notable mammals include the Nilgiri langur, Malabar giant squirrel, Indian elephant, tiger, leopard, and gaur (Indian bison).
    • The park is also home to over 200 species of birds, including the great Indian hornbill, Nilgiri wood pigeon, and several species of eagles and owls.

Source: TH

Silent Valley National Park FAQs

Q1: Where is the Silent Valley National Park located?

Ans: Kerala

Q2: Silent Valley National Park lies along which geographical region?

Ans: Southwest corner of the Nilgiris in South India.

Q3: What type of forest is mainly found in Silent Valley National Park?

Ans: Tropical wet evergreen forest.

Q4: Which river nourishes the Silent Valley National Park?

Ans: Kunthipuzha River.

Q5: Why is the valley called “Silent Valley”?

Ans: Because of the absence of cicadas that make buzzing sounds

National Energy Conservation Award

October 16, 2025
National Energy Conservation Award

National Energy Conservation Awards Latest News

Recently, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has invited applications for the 35th National Energy Conservation Awards (NECA) 2025.

About National Energy Conservation Awards

  • It is one of the most prestigious national platforms that recognize excellence, innovation, and leadership in energy efficiency and conservation.
  • It was instituted in 1991 by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).
  • Objective: These awards are envisioned to honor the exemplary contributions of industries, buildings, transport undertakings, and institutions in reducing energy consumption and enhancing energy efficiency.
  • Purpose and Significance -The Awards aim to inspire industries, organizations, and individuals to adopt energy-efficient technologies and practices.
  • Award Categories for NECA 2025: Industries, Transport, Buildings, Institutions (State/SDA - Evaluation through State EE Index), Energy-Efficient Appliances, Energy Efficiency Innovation, Content Creators and Influencers (New Category)
    • The new category, Digital Content Creators and Influencers, recognises the growing influence of social media in shaping public behavior and spreading awareness about energy conservation.
    • This new initiative aims to mobilize content creators as ambassadors of change, inspiring millions of citizens to adopt energy-conscious lifestyles. 

What is the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)?

  • It was set up on March 1, 2002 under the provisions of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. 
  • Mission: To assist in developing policies and strategies with a thrust on self-regulation and market principles, within the overall framework of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001
  • Objective: The primary objective of reducing the energy intensity of the Indian economy. 
  • Functions: It coordinates with designated consumers, designated agencies and other organizations and recognises, identifies and utilises the existing resources and infrastructure, in performing the functions assigned to it under the Energy Conservation Act.

Source: PIB

National Energy Conservation Awards FAQs

Q1: What is the primary objective of the National Energy Conservation Awards?

Ans: To recognize and honor energy-efficient practices.

Q2: Which organization presents the National Energy Conservation Awards?

Ans: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)

October 16, 2025
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) Latest News

The Supreme Court recently permitted the limited use of green crackers approved by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) in Delhi-NCR this Diwali.

About National Environmental Engineering Research Institute 

  • It is a research institute created and funded by the Government of India. 
  • NEERI is a pioneer laboratory in the field of environmental science and engineering.
  • The institute’s primary mission is to conduct research and development activities related to various aspects of environmental management, pollution control, and sustainable development.
  • Formation: 
    • It was established in Nagpur in 1958 as the Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute (CPHERI), when environmental concerns were limited to human health with a focus on water supply/sewage disposal/communicable diseases, and to some extent, on industrial pollution and occupational diseases. 
    • Slowly worldwide public awareness on the contamination of the environment on a regional to global scale started getting attention in the 1970’s. 
    • In 1974, CPHERI was rechristened the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI).
  • It is a constituent laboratory of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) under the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. 
  • It is devoted to research and innovations in environmental science and engineering besides solving a range of problems posed by industry, government, and the public. 
  • Headquarters: Nagpur
  • NEERI has five zonal laboratories at Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Mumbai.

Source: BT

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) FAQs

Q1: What is the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)?

Ans: A constituent laboratory of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) engaged in environmental research.

Q2: Where is the headquarters of National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) located?

Ans: Nagpur

Q3: Under which ministry does National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) function?

Ans: Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India.

Q4: What is the main objective of National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)?

Ans: To conduct research in environmental management and pollution control.

Fiscal Federalism and the Crisis of Municipal Finance in Urban India

October 16, 2025
Fiscal Federalism

Fiscal Federalism Latest News

  • Urban India contributes nearly two-thirds of the national GDP, yet its municipalities control less than 1% of the country’s tax revenue. 
  • This mismatch highlights a fundamental flaw in India’s fiscal architecture, where centralisation of taxation powers has weakened municipal autonomy. 
  • Understanding this issue is crucial, as it touches upon governance, decentralisation, urbanisation, and fiscal federalism.

The Fiscal Paradox of Urban India

  • Urban contribution vs fiscal control:
    • Indian cities are economic powerhouses but remain fiscally handicapped.
    • Municipalities depend heavily on State and Central transfers, loans, and schemes.
    • This has created an inversion of democracy — power is centralised while responsibilities are decentralised.
  • Post-GST revenue loss:
    • Introduction of GST (2017) led to the subsuming of octroi, entry tax, and local surcharges, resulting in an average 19% loss of municipal revenues.
    • Compensation mechanisms have not reached the municipal level effectively.
    • The result is the fiscal uncertainty and dependence on higher governments.

Municipal Bonds - Promise and Pitfalls

  • Policy push:
    • NITI Aayog and recent urban reforms promote municipal bonds as the next frontier of city finance.
    • However, credibility and uptake remain low due to systemic flaws.
  • Challenges in creditworthiness:
    • Credit rating agencies assess cities narrowly on their “own revenue,” ignoring grants and transfers which form a legitimate and recurring income stream.
    • This misjudgment reflects an ideological bias, treating cities as dependent entities rather than equal tiers of governance envisaged under the 74th Constitutional Amendment.
  • The property tax trap:
    • Property tax reforms, though vital, contribute only 20–25% of total revenue potential.
    • Over-reliance on the “user-pays” model shifts the burden of urban finance onto citizens, especially the urban poor, turning public goods into private commodities.
    • Services like water, sanitation, public lighting, and mobility are collective entitlements, not market goods.

The Constitutional and Ideological Dimensions

  • 74th Amendment and fiscal equality:
    • The 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992) envisioned urban local bodies (ULBs) as institutions of self-government.
    • However, the absence of fiscal devolution has reduced them to dependent implementers of centrally designed schemes.
  • Need for fiscal justice:
    • Recognising grants and shared taxes as rights, not favours, align with the spirit of cooperative federalism.
    • Urban fiscal empowerment is not a technical reform but a moral and political imperative.

The Way Forward

  • Democratise the fiscal contract:
    • Adopt a Scandinavian model where cities have the right to levy and collect local taxes, including income taxes in some cases.
    • This promotes accountability, transparency, and a direct link between citizens and governance.
  • Reimagine fiscal federalism: Ensure predictable, adequate, and untied transfers to cities. Recognise municipal grants as part of a shared fiscal ecosystem, not as discretionary handouts.
  • Reform the municipal bond framework:
    • Recognise grants and shared taxes as part of city income.
    • Include governance indicators (transparency, audit compliance, citizen participation) in city credit ratings.
    • Allow cities to use GST compensation or State tax shares as collateral for borrowing.
  • Strengthen local revenue mechanisms: Improve property tax coverage, digitise assessment systems. Diversify revenue sources — land value capture, service charges, and urban transport levies.
  • Restructure urban fiscal framework: Tackling urban challenges — from waste management and housing to climate resilience and infrastructure, and grounded in cooperative federalism, predictability, and autonomy.

Conclusion

  • India’s urban future depends on fiscal justice. Municipal finance is not merely a bookkeeping exercise, but a reflection of democratic and moral values.
  • Cities should not be viewed as cost centres but as engines of national prosperity.
  • For India to achieve sustainable urbanisation and inclusive growth, the fiscal relationship between the Centre, States, and cities must be rebalanced — restoring trust, autonomy, and resources to the grassroots.

Source: TH

Fiscal Federalism FAQs

Q1: Why are Indian municipalities facing a fiscal crisis?

Ans: Due to centralisation of taxation powers, over-dependence on intergovernmental transfers, and loss of traditional revenue sources.

Q2: How did the introduction of the GST impact municipal finances in India?

Ans: It subsumed local taxes such as octroi, entry tax, and surcharges, causing municipalities to lose nearly 19% of their own revenue sources.

Q3: What are the major limitations of the current municipal bond framework in India?

Ans: Municipal bonds suffer from low credibility as city credit ratings are narrowly based on their own revenue performance.

Q4: How can India democratise its fiscal contract to strengthen municipal governance?

Ans: By granting municipalities predictable and untied revenues, recognising grants as entitlements, and allowing local taxation powers.

Q5: Why is municipal finance in India described as a moral and political issue?

Ans: Because municipal finance reflects fiscal justice and democratic accountability, and cities must be treated as equal tiers of governance.

India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor – Explained

October 16, 2025
Economic Corridor

Economic Corridor Latest News

  • The India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor is in focus as geopolitical tensions in West Asia and Red Sea disruptions have raised concerns over its future viability and strategic implementation.

About India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

IMEC Corridor

  • The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is a major connectivity initiative designed to strengthen trade and transport linkages between India, the Arabian Peninsula, and Europe. 
  • Conceived as part of the G20 Summit in New Delhi in 2023, IMEC aims to provide a seamless multimodal network combining maritime and railway infrastructure to enhance economic integration and reduce logistical costs.
  • The corridor envisions a maritime route connecting Indian ports to those in the UAE, followed by a high-speed rail network stretching across Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Israel to reach the Haifa Port, from where goods would be transported onward to European destinations. 
  • Apart from transportation, IMEC also plans to establish an electricity grid, hydrogen pipeline, and undersea digital connectivity, making it a comprehensive economic corridor integrating energy, technology, and trade systems.

Historical and Geopolitical Background

  • The geopolitical atmosphere in 2023 was favourable for the launch of IMEC. The Abraham Accords, agreements normalising relations between Israel and several Arab nations, had created optimism about stability in West Asia. 
  • Building upon these developments, discussions began on creating a railway network linking Haifa in Israel to Jordan and the Gulf region.
  • At the same time, India’s relations with the UAE and Saudi Arabia reached unprecedented levels of strategic trust, strengthened by growing energy trade, defence cooperation, and investment partnerships. 
  • Moreover, the formation of the I2U2 grouping (India, Israel, the UAE, and the U.S.) further consolidated regional cooperation on trade, technology, and infrastructure.
  • In this context, the IMEC was announced during the G20 Leaders’ Summit in New Delhi (September 2023) with the endorsement of the U.S., European Union, France, Germany, Italy, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE. 
  • The project was widely seen as a strategic counter to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and as a step toward creating resilient global supply chains.

Challenges and Geopolitical Complexities

  • Within weeks of IMEC’s announcement, the October 7, 2023, Hamas attacks on Israel and the ensuing conflict in Gaza dramatically altered the regional geopolitical landscape. 
  • The escalation of violence between Israel and Hamas strained diplomatic relations between Israel and several Arab states, disrupting the fragile regional cooperation that had initially made IMEC feasible.
  • The security situation in West Asia remains volatile, with maritime threats in the Red Sea posed by Houthi groups disrupting global trade routes. 
  • Many shipping companies have diverted vessels around the Cape of Good Hope, increasing transit times and costs. These uncertainties underscore the vulnerability of regional logistics and the importance of alternative trade routes like IMEC.
  • Moreover, climate-induced developments such as the opening of Arctic shipping lanes due to melting ice are also influencing global trade. 
  • Countries like Russia, the U.S., and China are now exploring the Northern Sea Route as a faster, cheaper path between Asia and Europe. 
  • For Mediterranean economies such as Italy and France, both IMEC signatories, this presents a challenge, making the success of IMEC even more critical to maintain their relevance in maritime trade.

Strategic and Economic Importance for India

  • For India, IMEC represents a strategic opportunity to diversify trade routes and reduce dependence on chokepoints such as the Suez Canal. 
  • The corridor enhances India’s ability to access European markets via the Mediterranean, offering an alternative to China-dominated trade networks under the BRI.
  • Currently, the European Union (EU) is India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade crossing $136 billion in 2024. 
    • Given Europe’s high per capita income and technological advancements, building stronger connectivity through IMEC could significantly expand India’s export competitiveness.
  • IMEC also complements India’s ‘Act West’ policy, deepening its engagement with the Middle East, a region crucial for India’s energy security, remittances, and diaspora. 
  • Moreover, enhanced economic interaction through IMEC could help counterbalance Pakistan’s efforts to forge strategic alliances in the region, particularly with Gulf countries.

Infrastructure and Technological Vision

  • IMEC goes beyond a physical transport network. It integrates multiple domains, energy, technology, and sustainability, through the establishment of:
    • A clean hydrogen pipeline connecting India and Europe via the Middle East, supporting global energy transition goals.
    • An electricity grid to facilitate cross-border power trade, particularly renewable energy.
    • A digital connectivity network, including high-speed undersea cables, to boost digital trade and data infrastructure.
    • Upgraded logistics and ports to ensure seamless cargo movement between maritime and rail networks.
  • Such multidimensional infrastructure makes IMEC a 21st-century corridor, aligning with India’s green growth and digital transformation objectives.

Way Forward

  • While the political and security challenges are significant, India and partner nations must view IMEC as a long-term strategic project rather than a short-term commercial venture. The corridor’s flexibility allows for expansion, including potential integration of Saudi and Egyptian ports, which could make it more resilient to regional disruptions.
  • For IMEC to succeed, member countries need to:
    • Establish a permanent joint coordination mechanism to ensure implementation continuity.
    • Attract public-private partnerships and multilateral financing for infrastructure projects.
    • Build consensus on security guarantees for trade routes.
    • Synchronise with global frameworks like the EU’s Global Gateway and the U.S.-led Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII).

Source: TH

Economic Corridor FAQs

Q1: What is the India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)?

Ans: IMEC is a multimodal transport and infrastructure corridor connecting India, the Middle East, and Europe via maritime and rail routes.

Q2: When was IMEC announced?

Ans: IMEC was announced during the G20 Leaders’ Summit in New Delhi in September 2023.

Q3: What countries are part of the IMEC initiative?

Ans: The corridor includes India, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, the European Union, and the U.S.

Q4: What are the main objectives of IMEC?

Ans: IMEC aims to enhance connectivity, promote clean energy through hydrogen pipelines, and strengthen trade between Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.

Q5: What are the current challenges facing IMEC?

Ans: Regional instability in West Asia, Red Sea trade disruptions, and geopolitical tensions have delayed its implementation.

Madagascar

October 16, 2025
Madagascar

Madagascar Latest News

An elite military unit that backed youth-led anti-government street protests recently said it had taken power in Madagascar after the national assembly voted to impeach President Andry Rajoelina.

About Madagascar

  • It is an island country of Africa.
  • It is located around 400 km off the coast of East Africa in the Indian Ocean, with the nearest mainland African country being Mozambique. 
  • It is separated from the African coast by the Mozambique Channel.
  • It is the second-largest island country in the world. It covers an area of 592,800 sq.km.
  • The island country of Mauritius and Réunion (territory of France), lie to the east of Madagascar. 
  • To the northwest are the French territory of Mayotte and the island country of Comoros. 
  • The Tsaratanana Massif region at the northern end of the island is home to Madagascar’s highest point, Maromokotro, at 2,876 m. 
  • History:
    • France invaded the island in 1883. France officially declared Madagascar a French colony in 1896.
    • After World War II, in 1947, locals fought for their independence from France in what became known as the Malagasy Uprising. 
    • In 1960, Madagascar finally became an independent nation.
  • Capital: Antananarivo
  • Languages: Malagasy, French
  • Government: It is a semi-presidential republic. The public elects a president, who in turn appoints a prime minister to put together a cabinet to advise the president. 
  • Economy: 
    • Eighty percent of Madagascar’s economy is fueled by agricultural industries, including forestry and fishing. 
    • Among the island’s most frequently sold agricultural products are coffee, vanilla, and sugarcane.
  • Biodiversity:
    • Lush rainforests, dry deserts, and grassy plains cover the island, with coral reefs and mangrove forests stretching along its coastlines. 
    • Almost 90 percent of the plants and animals living on Madagascar aren’t found anywhere else in the world.
    • That’s because strong ocean currents have isolated the island from the African continent, so the species living there haven’t traveled beyond the island’s borders.

Source: NDTV

Madagascar FAQs

Q1: Madagascar is an island country belonging to which continent?

Ans: Africa

Q2: Which channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa?

Ans: Mozambique Channel

Q3: Which African country lies closest to Madagascar?

Ans: Mozambique

Q4: What is the capital of Madagascar?

Ans: Antananarivo

Agroforestry in India, Types, Policies, Challenges, Coverage

October 16, 2025
Agroforestry in India

Agroforestry in India refers to the deliberate integration of trees with crops and/or livestock in farming systems to attain ecological, economic, and social benefits. It is being promoted as a strategic response to land degradation, climate change, livelihood insecurity, and declining agricultural productivity. India’s policies have recognized agroforestry both as a means to restore degraded lands and to increase farmers’ income through diversified production. It aligns with national goals like increasing tree cover, reducing carbon intensity, and enhancing rural resilience.

Agroforestry in India

India formally adopted a National Agroforestry Policy in 2014, becoming the first country globally to enact such a policy. The policy aims to remove regulatory barriers such as those for tree-felling and transportation of timber from farm lands, and to build institutional capacity through research, extension, and market development. Key implementing bodies include the Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), MoA&FW, ICRAF, and state governments. Agroforestry is increasingly considered in major environmental and agricultural programmes for its multi-faceted benefits.

Agroforestry in India Types

Agroforestry in India is highly diverse and region-specific, varying with ecological conditions, land use, and socio-economic objectives. The five major types, each integrating trees, crops, and livestock in distinct combinations is given below:

  1. Agrisilviculture System

Combines trees and crops on the same land. Common in the Indo-Gangetic plains, this system integrates species like poplar, eucalyptus, neem, and acacia with crops such as wheat, sugarcane, and mustard.

  1. Silvopastoral System

Integrates tree planting with livestock grazing, improving fodder supply and preventing land degradation. Practiced in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Karnataka, where grasses and leguminous species coexist with hardy trees like prosopis and leucaena.

  1. Agrihorticultural System

Combines food crops with fruit trees like mango, guava, and banana to ensure short-term and long-term income security. Common in southern and northeastern India.

  1. Hortipastoral System

Links fruit trees and pasture species, promoting both food and fodder security. This is effective in rainfed and drought-prone regions where mixed systems ensure resilience.

  1. Agrosilvopastoral System

A more complex system combining trees, crops, and livestock on the same land. Common in Traditional home gardens in high-rainfall areas, particularly Kerala and Tamil Nadu, represent this type of integration.

Agroforestry in India Objectives

India's agroforestry aims to achieve multiple interlinked goals:

  • Environmental sustainability: Restore degraded land; increase tree cover outside forests; sequester carbon to mitigate climate change.
  • Livelihood improvement: Provide additional income sources through timber, fuelwood, fruits and fodder; cushion farmers against crop failure.
  • Policy and regulatory reforms: Simplify rules regarding harvesting, transit, tree felling; secure land tenure and streamline institutional coordination.
  • Research, innovation & capacity building: Increase institutional capability (e.g. CAFRI), quality planting material, extension services for diverse agro-ecological zones.

Agroforestry Practices in India

Agroforestry practices in India vary by region, farmer type, and purpose. Some of the working models and practices include:

  • Home gardens & boundary planting: Small trees or shrubs around fields or homesteads supplying fruits, fodder, fuelwood.
  • Silvi-pastoral and agri-silvicultural systems: Crops intercropped with trees like legumes, nitrogen fixers, or timber species; livestock grazing under tree cover.
  • Agroforestry in watershed development: ICAR-CAFRI’s Parasai-Sindh watershed in Jhansi and Tikamgarh shows that integrating trees with natural resource management improves groundwater recharge, reduces storm flows, and enhances drought resilience.
  • Use of multipurpose tree species: Farmers are encouraged to plant short, medium, and long-term returning trees (fruit, fodder, medicinal, timber) within farmland under schemes such as Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF).

Agroforestry in India Government Policies

India’s government has progressively introduced several policies to promote agroforestry as a sustainable and income-generating land-use system. These policies aim to integrate trees into farmlands, improve ecosystem health, and boost farmer incomes. 

Key Policies:

  • National Agroforestry Policy (2014): The first of its kind globally, this policy encourages tree cultivation on farmland and simplifies tree-felling and transit regulations.
  • National Forest Policy (1988): Emphasized increasing tree cover outside forests through farm forestry and community-based plantations.
  • National Bamboo Mission (2006): Promotes bamboo cultivation under agroforestry systems, creating livelihood and industrial linkages.
  • Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF)- 2016: Provides financial support for sapling distribution, nursery development, and farmer training.
  • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Integrates agroforestry with soil, water, and nutrient management to ensure sustainability in agriculture.

National Agroforestry Policy 2014

The National Agroforestry Policy of 2014 laid out the legal and institutional architecture needed for agroforestry expansion. Key measures include:

  • Regulatory simplification, allowing felling, harvesting, transportation of trees from farmland across states.
  • Institutional setup, with CAFRI, MoA&FW, ICRAF and state governments collaborating; formation of state agroforestry plans.
  • Budget and financial allocations,The policy recommended setting up a Mission or Board with a proposed corpus of Rs 4000-5000 crore annually.
  • Quality planting material, extension services, training of farmers and women in agroforestry techniques.

Agroforestry in India Government Initiatives

Several large-scale initiatives have been implemented to mainstream agroforestry practices and enhance India’s green economy. These programs combine technology, research, and rural livelihood development through public-private partnerships and institutional collaboration.

Major Initiatives:

  • GROW Portal (2024): Launched by NITI Aayog, it uses GIS and remote sensing to map 28.42 million hectares under agroforestry and identify 75.6 million hectares of potential area for expansion.
  • Green India Mission (GIM): Seeks to increase forest and tree cover by 5 million hectares through agroforestry and reforestation programs.
  • Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Encourages organic and agroforestry-based systems to enhance soil fertility and biodiversity.
  • Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Supports rural afforestation and tree plantation on fallow lands as part of wage-employment generation.
  • State-level Policies: States like Haryana, Assam, and Karnataka have introduced regional agroforestry policies aligned with national guidelines to boost local implementation.

Agroforestry in India Legal Framework

The legal framework governing agroforestry in India has evolved to balance environmental conservation with economic incentives for farmers. Earlier, stringent forest laws made it difficult to harvest and transport farm-grown timber, discouraging tree planting. The 2014 policy and subsequent amendments have eased these constraints through national and state-level regulations.

Key Legal Provisions:

  • Tree Felling and Transit Rules: Many states have exempted select tree species (e.g., neem, poplar, eucalyptus, subabul) from felling/ transit permits to promote farm forestry. Each state government maintains its own list of exempted species based on local conditions and ecology. In June 2025, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change issued Model Rules for 'Felling of Trees in Agricultural Land’ to standardize and liberalize the regulatory framework for agroforestry across states.
  • Forest Rights Act (2006): Recognizes the rights of forest dwellers and tribal communities to manage and utilize forest produce sustainably. The Act defines Minor Forest Produce (MFP) to include items like bamboo, tendu leaves, honey, and medicinal plants, which forest dwellers can collect, use, and sell. It does not include timber. 
  • Environmental Protection Act (1986): Supports afforestation and agroforestry to reduce soil erosion and mitigate carbon emissions. The Act focuses on controlling pollutants and setting environmental standards, primarily as a response to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. 
  • Biodiversity Act (2002): Encourages the cultivation of indigenous species to conserve ecosystem diversity.
  • The NITI Aayog's "Model Agricultural Land Leasing Act, 2016": Certain state amendments now allow farmers to plant and harvest trees even on leased or community lands.

Agroforestry in India Historical Background

India has long traditions of integrating trees into farmland, home gardens, boundary planting, silvipastoral systems, and informal practice of “trees outside forests” (TOF). In response to increasing recognition of ecological and livelihood benefits, the Government launched the National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) in February 2014, developed with ICRAF and partner institutions. The policy established institutional frameworks, addressed regulatory bottlenecks, and upgraded research capacity including transforming the National Research Centre for Agroforestry into CAFRI.

Agroforestry in India Coverage

Current estimates suggest agroforestry covers around 28.42 million hectares (about 8.65% of India’s total geographical area), as per the Greening and Restoration of Wasteland with Agroforestry (GROW) initiative. Earlier estimates (2013) placed it at ~25.32 million hectares or 8.2%. The potential area identified as “High Suitability” (cropland suitable for agroforestry) is approximately 75.6 million hectares, almost 2.7 times the current extent. This shows large untapped potential, particularly in Eastern Plains and other agro-climatic zones.

Some localized projects demonstrate agroforestry's efficacy:

  • Parasai-Sindh Watershed (Jhansi, U.P.): With ICAR-CAFRI and ICRISAT’s collaboration, over ~115 hectares were brought under tree-crop systems. Check dams, field bunds raised groundwater, reduced risk during drought years.
  • SMAF plantations since 2016-17: Under the Sub-Mission on Agroforestry, 1.21 lakh hectares have been planted with 5.32 crore trees with multipurpose species, giving farmers alternate sources of income and enhancing soil health.

Agroforestry in India Challenges

While agroforestry has strong policy support, multiple challenges limit its scale and effectiveness:

  1. Fragmented land holdings and tenure issues: Many farmers do not have secure rights, making long-term investments risky.
  2. Regulatory complexity across states, despite policy reforms; variation in tree felling, transit rules, and state permissions.
  3. Insufficient extension and technical support for farmers, especially in remote areas. Quality planting material, market linkages, and knowledge of best practices are limited.
  4. Market and income risks: Agroforestry produce (fruit, timber, medicinal trees) often face uncertain markets and price volatility.
  5. Climate risks: Region-specific vulnerability (Eastern Plains, Western Ghats) to future temperature and precipitation changes that may reduce productivity.

Way Forward:

Strategies to overcome challenges and expand agroforestry effectively include:

  • Strengthening state-level policy alignment so that agroforestry regulations are uniform and supportive across states.
  • Scaling up remote sensing and GIS-based mapping (e.g. GROW portal) to identify high suitability areas and monitor tree cover.
  • Improving access to credit, insurance, market mechanisms for agroforestry produce, ensuring price discovery and value chains.
  • Enhancing research and innovation through CAFRI, ICAR and ICRAF, including improved species, climate resilient systems.
  • Institutionally building capacity among farmers, especially small and marginal, and women, through training, participatory extension.
  • Integrating agroforestry into national targets like achieving 33% tree and forest cover, restoring degraded lands (26 Mha goal by 2030) and using agroforestry for carbon sink creation.

Agroforestry in India Impact

Agroforestry has shown measurable impacts across environment, climate, and livelihoods:

  • Increase in area under agroforestry from ~25.32 million hectares (2013), covering ~8.2%, to about 28.42 million hectares (~8.65% of India) under GROW mapping.
  • Rough estimates of industrial wood production from Trees Outside Forests (TOF) (which includes agroforestry) meet about 85% of India’s demand for industrial wood, with ~915 lakh m³/year potential production estimated by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) in the ISFR 2023.
  • Socio-economic upliftment: Income diversification; farmers get returns from tree crops in addition to annual crops; job creation (nurseries, planting, harvesting). Success in SMAF plantations shows farmers benefit from multipurpose species.
  • Agroforestry in India Impact on Climate Change: Agroforestry contributes significantly to both climate change mitigation and adaptation. Studies by ICAR-CAFRI estimate the carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems is wide-ranging: above-ground tree components can sequester between 0.25 to 76.55 Mg C/ha/year, crop components 0.01 to 0.60, and soil carbon 0.003 to 3.98 Mg C/ha/year depending on species, system and site. 
  • Impact on Environment: Agroforestry also helps in stabilizing soil, improving soil organic carbon, reducing erosion, buffering extreme temperatures, preserving moisture, and providing diversified livelihoods to cope with climate shocks.

Agroforestry in India International Commitments

India’s agroforestry practices are closely aligned with international frameworks and global sustainability goals. The country collaborates with multilateral organizations to promote agroforestry as a key tool for climate resilience, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity restoration. Global and Multilateral Linkages:

  • FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization): Recognizes India’s agroforestry as a model for integrating trees into agricultural landscapes to achieve the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030).
  • ICRAF (World Agroforestry Centre): Partners with ICAR-CAFRI for research, training, and global policy dialogue on agroforestry systems.
  • UNFCCC Commitments: Agroforestry is included in India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to increase forest and tree cover to 33-35% of geographical area.
  • SDG Alignment: Agroforestry directly contributes to SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land).
  • Bonn Challenge and Land Degradation Neutrality Goals: India has pledged to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030, with agroforestry as a major component.

Agroforestry in India UPSC

Recent developments include digital tools like remote sensing for land mapping, AI-based agro-advisories, and climate-smart species selection. Agroforestry is increasingly part of carbon credit programs and sustainable supply chains, supported by public-private partnerships under the Green Credit Programme (2023). The integration of women self-help groups (SHGs) in nursery development and plantation management has further expanded the social impact of agroforestry in rural India.

As of early 2024, India is scaling agroforestry adoption through the GROW initiative led by NITI Aayog, which maps agroforestry suitability district-wise using GIS and remote sensing. The GROW portal warns of large potential yet to be realized- only 8.65% area currently, while about 75.6 million hectares are highly suitable. Policy reforms including simplified transit/ felling rules in ~25 states, strengthened research through CAFRI, and increasing attention from state governments (e.g Assam approved its own agroforestry policy). Agroforestry is also being seen in relation to India’s commitments to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030, and reducing emission intensity of GDP by 33% over 2005 levels (aims 45% by 2030).

Agroforestry in India FAQs

Q1: What is Agroforestry in India?

Ans: Agroforestry integrates trees with crops and livestock to improve soil health, income, biodiversity, and climate resilience.

Q2: What are the main types of Agroforestry in India?

Ans: Major types include Agrisilviculture, Silvopastoral, Agrihorticultural, Hortipastoral, and Agrosilvopastoral systems practiced across different agro-climatic regions.

Q3: What is the National Agroforestry Policy 2014?

Ans: It promotes tree planting on farmlands, simplifies regulations, and strengthens research, extension, and institutional frameworks for farmers.

Q4: What are the key challenges of Agroforestry in India?

Ans: Challenges include regulatory complexity, fragmented landholding, poor market access, low awareness, and climate risks affecting productivity.

Q5: What is the current coverage of Agroforestry in India?

Ans: Agroforestry covers around 28.42 million hectares, nearly 8.65% of India’s area, with high expansion potential under GROW.

Akash Missile System

October 16, 2025
Akash Missile System

Akash Missile System Latest News

India is learnt to have pitched for the supply of the Akash missile system to Brazil, as the Defence Minister recently held wide-ranging talks with Brazilian Vice-President Geraldo Alckmin in New Delhi.

About Akash Missile System

  • It is a short-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) system.
  • It is designed to protect vulnerable areas, points, and assets from a range of aerial threats, including fighter aircraft, cruise missiles, drones, and helicopters.
  • It was indigenously designed and developed by India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and is produced by Hyderabad-based Bharat Dynamics Ltd. (BDL).
  • It is currently in service with the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Indian Army. 

Akash Missile System Features

  • The system features a launcher, a missile, a control centre, an integral mission guidance system, a multifunctional fire control radar, a system arming and explosion mechanism, a digital autopilot, C4I (command, control, communication, and intelligence) centres and supporting ground equipment.
  • It can simultaneously engage multiple targets in Group Mode or Autonomous Mode.
  • The missile is 5.87 meters long, 350 millimeters in diameter, and weighs 710 kilograms.
  • It features a solid-fuel, ramjet propulsion system, capable of reaching speeds of Mach 2.5 to 3.5 (up to 4,200 km/h).
  • It covers a range of 4.5 km to 25 km and can engage aerial threats flying between 100 meters and 20 kilometers in altitude.
  • It is a fully mobile system, effective at engaging multiple targets simultaneously with a kill probability of up to 99% with a salvo of two missiles. 
  • Its sophisticated Rajendra radar can track numerous targets and guide multiple missiles concurrently.
  • It is fully automatic, features built-in electronic counter measures, and is mobile across different terrains.

Source: TH

Akash Missile System FAQs

Q1: What type of missile system is the Akash Missile System?

Ans: It is a short-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) system.

Q2: Which organisation designed and developed the Akash Missile System?

Ans: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)

Q3: What is the maximum range of the Akash Missile System?

Ans: It covers a range of 4.5 km to 25 km.

Q4: What is the maximum altitude at which the Akash missile can engage aerial threats?

Ans: 20 km

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