Current Affairs of 23 July 2026

by Vajiram & Ravi - 23 July 2026

Vajiram and Ravi provide Current Affairs of 23 July 2026 for UPSC aspirants. We cover all relevant news and important events crucial for the exam, helping you stay updated and well prepared.

Folk Dances of Rajasthan, List, Features, and Cultural Significance

July 23, 2026
Folk Dances of Rajasthan

Folk Dances of Rajasthan reflect the rich culture, traditions, and vibrant lifestyle of the people of the state. These dances are not just forms of entertainment but are deeply connected with daily life, festivals, and social celebrations. Performed with colorful costumes, lively music, and energetic movements, they showcase the spirit of joy and togetherness. Each region and community in Rajasthan has its own unique dance style, which adds to the diversity and cultural richness of the state. 

Famous Folk Dances of Rajasthan

The famous folk dances of Rajasthan represent the vibrant and lively cultural heritage of the state. These dances are an important part of traditional life and are commonly performed during festivals, fairs, and special occasions. Known for their graceful movements, colorful costumes, and energetic expressions, they reflect the spirit and identity of different communities. Some of the well-known folk dances of Rajasthan are discussed below. 

1. Ghoomar

  • Ghoomar is one of the most popular and traditional folk dances of Rajasthan, mainly performed by women during important occasions.
  • The dance is known for its graceful circular movements, where performers spin continuously, creating a visually appealing scene.
  • It was originally associated with the Bhil community and later became an integral part of Rajput culture.
  • It is commonly performed during festivals like Holi and Teej, as well as during weddings and social celebrations.
  • The dancers wear traditional attire such as ghagra, choli, and odhani, and their synchronized movements reflect joy, elegance, and cultural pride.

2. Kalbeliya

  • Kalbeliya is a famous folk dance performed by the Kalbeliya tribe, also known for their traditional association with snake charming.
  • The dance is recognized for its serpentine movements, where dancers imitate the flexible and rhythmic motion of snakes.
  • Women wear black flowing costumes with intricate embroidery, which enhances the visual effect of the dance.
  • The performance is accompanied by traditional instruments like pungi, dholak, and khanjari, played by male members of the community.
  • It reflects the cultural identity and lifestyle of the tribe and has gained international recognition as an important cultural heritage.

3. Kachhi Ghodi Dance

  • Kachhi Ghodi is a distinctive folk dance performed by men, mainly from the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan.
  • The dancers wear a dummy horse costume, creating the illusion of riding a horse during the performance.
  • This dance form is used to depict stories of local bandits, bravery, and heroic deeds through movements and expressions.
  • Performers dress in traditional attire such as turbans, kurtas, and dhotis, often carrying swords for symbolic combat.
  • It combines entertainment with storytelling, making it both engaging and culturally significant.

4. Bhavai Dance

  • Bhavai is a unique and skillful dance performed mainly by women of tribal communities in Rajasthan.
  • The main highlight is the balancing of multiple earthen or brass pots on the head while performing complex movements.
  • In some performances, dancers also balance on narrow surfaces like plates or sword edges, demonstrating remarkable control and balance.
  • The dance represents the daily life and resilience of rural women, especially tasks like carrying water.
  • It is accompanied by music played on instruments such as sarangi, harmonium, and dholak, adding rhythm to the performance.

5. Kathputli Dance

  • Kathputli is a traditional puppet-based performance art, which holds an important place in Rajasthan’s cultural heritage.
  • The word refers to wooden puppets controlled by strings, skillfully handled by puppeteers.
  • This art form is traditionally practiced by the Bhat community, who pass it down through generations.
  • The performances narrate stories based on mythology, folklore, and social themes, making them both entertaining and informative.
  • Apart from entertainment, it also serves as a source of livelihood for many traditional artist families.

6. Chari Dance

  • Chari Dance is performed by women, particularly from the Gujjar and Saini communities, during festive and joyful occasions.
  • The main feature of this dance is balancing a brass pot with a lit lamp on the head while performing graceful movements.
  • It symbolizes happiness, celebration, and prosperity, especially during marriages and special events.
  • The dance also reflects the traditional practice of fetching water, which was an important part of rural life.
  • It is accompanied by instruments like dholak, nagada, and harmonium, creating a lively atmosphere.

7. Gair Dance

  • Gair is a popular group dance, mainly performed by the Bhil community during festivals.
  • It is especially associated with Holi and other festive occasions, reflecting a spirit of celebration and unity.
  • Dancers move in circular formations, both clockwise and anti-clockwise, creating coordinated patterns.
  • They carry sticks or sometimes swords, which are used rhythmically during the dance.
  • The dance highlights team coordination, energy, and collective participation.

8. Dhamal / Chang Dance

  • Dhamal or Chang Dance is a vibrant and energetic folk dance associated with major festivals.
  • It is named after the “Chang”, a traditional percussion instrument used during the performance.
  • The dance is mainly performed during Holi and Maha Shivratri, adding to the festive spirit.
  • A unique feature is that men often dress as women, making the performance more lively and engaging.
  • The dance is full of enthusiasm, rhythm, and joy, reflecting the celebratory culture of Rajasthan.

Also Read : Festivals of Rajasthan

Folk Dances of Rajasthan Cultural Significance

  • Folk dances like Ghoomar and Kalbeliya help in preserving the rich cultural heritage, traditions, and values of Rajasthan by passing them from one generation to another in an engaging way.
  • Performances of Gair, Chang, and Chari dance during festivals such as Holi and weddings add energy and meaning to celebrations, making them an important part of social and religious life.
  • Dances such as Kalbeliya and Kachhi Ghodi reflect the unique identity, lifestyle, and history of specific communities, showcasing their traditions through movements and storytelling.
  • Forms like Bhavai and Chari dance represent daily life activities, such as balancing pots or carrying water, highlighting the strength and skills of rural life.
  • Group performances like Gair dance promote unity, coordination, and social bonding, bringing people together in a spirit of joy and cooperation.
  • Artistic traditions like Kathputli and popular dances like Ghoomar attract tourists and global recognition, helping to promote Rajasthan’s culture and support local artists.

Folk Dances of Rajasthan FAQs

Q1: What are the main characteristics of folk dances of Rajasthan?

Ans: Folk dances of Rajasthan are known for their colorful costumes, rhythmic music, and energetic movements. They are closely linked with festivals, traditions, and daily life, reflecting the cultural identity of different communities.

Q2: Which is the most popular folk dance of Rajasthan?

Ans: Ghoomar is considered the most popular folk dance of Rajasthan, especially performed by women during festivals and weddings with graceful spinning movements.

Q3: What is Kalbeliya dance famous for?

Ans: Kalbeliya dance is famous for its snake-like movements and is performed by the Kalbeliya tribe, representing their traditional lifestyle and cultural identity.

Q4: What is unique about Bhavai dance?

Ans: Bhavai dance is unique because dancers balance multiple pots on their heads and sometimes perform on narrow surfaces, showcasing exceptional skill and balance.

Q5: What is the theme of Kachhi Ghodi dance?

Ans: Kachhi Ghodi dance is based on stories of bravery and local bandits, where performers use a dummy horse costume to present storytelling through dance.

Festivals of Bihar, List, Significance & Cultural Importance

July 23, 2026
Festivals of Bihar

Bihar is a land of rich cultural traditions and vibrant celebrations. Festivals here reflect the deep faith, history, and social harmony of its people. They are often connected with nature, seasons, and religious beliefs, and are celebrated with great devotion and enthusiasm. These festivals not only bring people together but also showcase the unique cultural identity and heritage of the state. Festivals of Bihar are discussed in detail in this article.

Major Festivals of Bihar

The major festivals of Bihar reflect the state’s rich cultural heritage, religious traditions, and seasonal diversity. These festivals are celebrated with great devotion and enthusiasm, bringing people together and strengthening social harmony. Some of the most important festivals are discussed below, highlighting their significance and unique features. 

1. Chhath Puja

  • Chhath Puja is a major Hindu festival dedicated to the Sun God (Surya) and Chhathi Maiya, mainly celebrated in Bihar with great faith and devotion.
  • It is observed during Kartik Shukla Paksha (October-November), just after Diwali, and marks a time of seasonal change and gratitude towards nature.
  • The festival lasts for four days and is known for its strict rituals, including a 36-hour fast without food and water, showing strong discipline and purity.
  • A unique feature of this festival is that there is no idol worship, as devotees directly pray to the Sun and natural elements while standing in rivers or water bodies.
  • Four Days of Rituals
    • Nahay-Khaay: Devotees take a holy bath, bring clean water home, and eat pure vegetarian food while maintaining cleanliness.
    • Kharna: A day-long fast is observed and broken in the evening with kheer, after which the 36-hour fast begins.
    • Sandhya Arghya: Devotees gather at riverbanks to offer prayers to the setting Sun with traditional offerings in bamboo baskets.
    • Usha Arghya: The final prayer is offered to the rising Sun, and the fast ends with Prasad distribution among family and community.
  • Historical and Mythological Significance
    • Chhath Puja is considered an ancient form of nature worship, reflecting early human respect for natural forces like the Sun, which sustains life on Earth.
    • In the Mahabharata, Karna, the son of Surya, is believed to have performed rituals to worship the Sun, while Draupadi observed this fast for strength and restoration of her kingdom.
    • In the Ramayana, it is believed that Lord Ram and Goddess Sita performed Sun worship after returning to Ayodhya, adding to its religious importance.

2. Sonepur Cattle Fair

  • The Sonepur Cattle Fair, also known as the Harihar Kshetra Mela, is one of the largest livestock fairs in Asia, held annually in Sonepur (Bihar) at the sacred confluence of the Ganga and Gandak rivers, making it both a commercial and religious gathering.
  • The fair begins on the auspicious occasion of Kartik Purnima (full moon of Kartik month, around November) and continues for nearly a month, attracting large numbers of traders, pilgrims, and tourists from different parts of India and beyond.
  • It has been popular since ancient times as a major center for livestock trading, where animals like horses, cattle, birds, and historically even elephants were bought and sold, giving it the identity of a traditional ‘Pashu Mela’.
  • Historical Significance
    • The fair has deep historical roots, and it is believed that even Chandragupta Maurya used this place to purchase horses and elephants, highlighting its importance in ancient military and trade networks.
    • Historical accounts suggest that traders from Central Asia visited this fair, making it an important hub of international trade in earlier times, especially for war elephants.
    • Prominent historical figures such as Emperor Akbar, Veer Kunwar Singh, and even Robert Clive (who built a horse stable in 1803) are associated with this fair, showing its continued importance across different periods.
    • The fair was originally held in Hajipur but was later shifted to Sonepur during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, giving it its present location.

3. Makar-Sankranti

  • Makar Sankranti is a major pan-India harvest festival and is known for its seasonal importance, agricultural significance, and cultural diversity across different regions
  • Unlike most Indian festivals that follow the lunar calendar, Makar Sankranti is based on the solar cycle, which is why it falls on almost the same date every year, making it unique among Hindu festivals
  • The festival marks the time when the Sun changes its direction and begins its northward movement (Uttarayan), entering the Makara (Capricorn) zodiac sign, which is considered highly auspicious
  • It also indicates a change in season, as the days gradually become longer and warmer, symbolizing the end of winter and a shift away from a period of inactivity towards growth and energy
  • Makar Sankranti is mainly a harvest festival, marking the end of the winter crop season and the beginning of a new agricultural cycle, especially important for farmers
  • It is a time to express gratitude towards nature, the Sun, and agricultural resources for providing a successful harvest and sustaining life
  • The festival is celebrated in different parts of India with different names and customs, reflecting the country’s cultural diversity.
    • In Tamil Nadu, it is celebrated as Pongal, a four-day festival
    • In Punjab, it is known as Lohri, marked by bonfires, folk songs
    • In Assam, it is celebrated as Magh Bihu
    • In Bihar, it is often called Khichdi
    • In states like Gujarat and Rajasthan, the festival is famous for kite flying
  • The festival encourages values like sharing, gratitude, and community bonding, bringing people closer and strengthening social relationships 

4. Pitrapaksha Mela

  • The Pitru Paksha Mela is a world-famous religious event held in Gaya (Bihar), where lakhs of devotees from India and abroad gather to perform Pind Daan and Tarpan for the peace and salvation of their ancestors’ souls
  • It is observed for about 16 days during Ashwin Krishna Paksha (from Bhadrapada Purnima to Ashwin Amavasya/Mahalaya), a period considered highly sacred for Shraddha rituals in Hindu tradition
  • The main ritual, Pind Daan, is believed to grant moksha (liberation) to ancestors from the cycle of birth and death, making Gaya one of the most important pilgrimage sites for ancestral worship
  • Key ritual locations include the Vishnupad Temple, the banks of the Phalgu River, Pretshila, Sita Kund, and other sites, with around 48 designated altars where rituals are performed under the guidance of priests
  • According to beliefs, Lord Rama performed Pind Daan here for his father Dasharatha, and Goddess Sita also offered rituals on the Phalgu River, giving rise to traditions like Sita Pind Daan
  • During this period, the entire city is filled with devotion and spiritual energy, as large numbers of pilgrims and priests participate together in rituals and prayers

5. Rajgir Mahotsav

  • The Rajgir Festival is a popular cultural event that highlights the history, religion, art, and heritage of Rajgir and Nalanda
  • It started in 1986 and is celebrated every year in December, gaining recognition at the state, national, and international levels
  • This is a three-day festival organised by the Tourism Department, Art and Culture Department, and the Nalanda district administration of Bihar
  • The main venue is the Rajgir Convention Centre (RICC) and its surrounding areas, where various events are held
  • The festival includes classical music and dance performances, folk arts, cultural programs, food fairs, and heritage exhibitions
  • Many famous artists, singers, and dancers from across India and abroad perform live, making the festival lively and engaging
  • Over time, the festival has combined traditional and modern elements, helping to promote Rajgir and Nalanda as major tourist destinations

6. Bihula

  • The Bihula Mahotsav, also known as Bihula-Bishari Puja, is an important cultural and religious festival mainly celebrated in the Bhagalpur district of Bihar
  • It is observed every year in August, where people worship Goddess Manasa (the serpent goddess) for the safety and well-being of their families
  • The festival is based on the folk story of Bihula and Lakhindar, which highlights true love, devotion, and determination
  • According to the legend, Bihula’s strong faith and efforts brought her husband back to life after he died from a snake bite
  • A major attraction of the festival is Manjusha art, a traditional art form with snake designs and mythological stories
  • The celebration includes local fairs, folk songs, traditional dances, and dramatic performances based on the story of Bihula
  • Special rituals and prayers are performed by priests and devotees, mainly to seek protection from snake bites and blessings for children

7. Buddha Jayanti

  • Buddha Jayanti, also known as Buddha Purnima or Vesak, is the most important festival for Buddhists in Bihar
  • It marks the birth, enlightenment, and death (nirvana) of Lord Buddha, making it a very sacred occasion
  • The festival is celebrated on the full moon day of the Vaisakha month (usually in April or May)
  • In Bihar, the main celebrations take place in Bodh Gaya, where Lord Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree
  • The Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Bihar becomes the center of activities, attracting devotees from across India and around the world
  • A major highlight is a religious procession (Dhamma Yatra) along with prayers, meditation, and chanting
  • Devotees offer flowers, robes, candles, and kheer (sweet dish) as a sign of respect and devotion
  • Overall, the festival in Bihar spreads the message of peace, wisdom, and compassion, which are the core teachings of Buddha

8. Jivitputrika

  • Jivitputrika, also called Jitiya Vrat, is an important festival in Bihar, especially celebrated by mothers
  • It is observed for the health, long life, and prosperity of their children
  • The festival lasts for three days, each with its own significance
  • Day 1 (Nahai-Khai): Mothers take a holy bath and eat a proper meal to prepare for the fast
  • Day 2 (Fasting Day): Mothers observe a strict fast, often without food and water, showing their deep love and dedication
  • Day 3 (Paaran): The fast is ended with a meal, marking the completion of the ritual
  • The festival is linked to the story of King Jimutavahana, who is remembered for his selfless sacrifice and kindness

9. Madhushravani

  • Madhushravani is a traditional festival of Bihar, mainly celebrated by newly married women in the Mithila region
  • It takes place during the monsoon month of Sawan and lasts for about 13-15 days
  • The festival focuses on love in marriage, husband’s long life, and harmony with nature
  • Newlywed women usually celebrate it at their parents’ home, where they follow rituals with family support and guidance
  • They worship Lord Shiva, Goddess Parvati, serpent deities (Nagas), and Navagrahas, offering fruits, sweets, and flowers
  • Women collect seasonal flowers and leaves in baskets and take part in traditional songs and prayers
  • Elder women share mythological and folk stories, helping pass on traditions and cultural values
  • On the final day, a traditional ritual is performed to show the bride’s patience and devotion
  • The festival reflects the cultural richness of Bihar and highlights marital bonding, faith, and tradition

Role of Festivals in Preserving Bihar's Art, Culture, and Traditions

  • Festivals like Chhath Puja and Makar Sankranti help preserve ancient rituals, seasonal practices, and traditional beliefs, keeping Bihar’s cultural roots strong and meaningful even in modern times
  • Cultural events such as the Rajgir Festival promote classical music, folk dances, and traditional performances, providing a platform for artists and helping these art forms continue to thrive
  • Festivals like Bihula Mahotsav play an important role in protecting local art forms such as Manjusha painting, encouraging artists and keeping these unique styles alive
  • Celebrations like Madhushravani and Jitiya Vrat help in passing down traditions, folk stories, and family values from elders to the younger generation through rituals and storytelling
  • Religious gatherings such as the Pitru Paksha Mela preserve spiritual practices and age-old customs, strengthening people’s connection with their heritage and beliefs
  • These festivals also boost tourism and the local economy, as events attract visitors from different places, increasing awareness and appreciation of Bihar’s rich culture and traditions

Festivals of Bihar FAQs

Q1: What is the most important festival of Bihar?

Ans: The most important festival of Bihar is Chhath Puja, dedicated to the Sun God and Chhathi Maiya. It is known for its strict rituals, fasting, and worship of nature.

Q2: Why is Chhath Puja unique among Indian festivals?

Ans: Chhath Puja is unique because it involves no idol worship and focuses on direct prayers to the Sun and natural elements, along with a strict 36-hour fast.

Q3: What is the Sonepur Cattle Fair famous for?

Ans: The Sonepur Cattle Fair is famous as one of Asia’s largest livestock fairs, known for animal trading, cultural gatherings, and religious significance.

Q4: How is Makar Sankranti celebrated in Bihar?

Ans: In Bihar, Makar Sankranti is celebrated as Khichdi festival, where people prepare traditional food, offer prayers, and express gratitude for the harvest.

Q5: What is the significance of Pitrapaksha Mela in Gaya?

Ans: Pitrapaksha Mela is important for performing Pind Daan rituals, which are believed to bring peace and salvation to ancestors’ souls.

Hedychium zubeengargianum

July 23, 2026
Hedychium zubeengargianum

Hedychium zubeengargianum Latest News

A new species of ginger lily named Hedychium zubeengargianum was recently discovered in Shillong.

About Hedychium zubeengargianum

  • It is a new species of ginger lily.
  • It was identified by botanists at the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Eastern Regional Centre, Shillong, Meghalaya, after years of studying an unusual plant growing in the institute’s botanical garden. 
  • Although it had been growing there since at least 2018, its original source could not be traced because no collection records were available. 
  • The species was named after Meghalaya-born Assamese music legend Zubeen Garg. 
  • Popularly known as ginger lilies, Hedychium species are among the Northeast’s most striking flowering plants. 
  • India is home to about 41 taxa, most of them occurring in the biodiversity-rich landscapes of the Northeast and the Western Ghats. 
  • Hedychium zubeengargianum stands apart from its closest relative, Hedychium gracile, by its creamy-white fragrant flowers, yellow anthers, densely hairy flowering stalk, and an earlier flowering season from April to May. 

News: HUB

Hedychium zubeengargianum FAQs

Q1: What is Hedychium zubeengargianum?

Ans: It is a newly identified species of ginger lily.

Q2: Which organization identified Hedychium zubeengargianum?

Ans: The Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Eastern Regional Centre, Shillong.

Q3: After whom was Hedychium zubeengargianum named?

Ans: After whom was Hedychium zubeengargianum named?

Q4: What is the flower colour of Hedychium zubeengargianum?

Ans: Creamy white.

Borophene

July 23, 2026
Borophene

Borophene Latest News

Scientists in India recently achieved a significant breakthrough in sustainable lubrication by demonstrating, for the first time, the use of borophene as a high-performance lubricant additive in castor oil. 

About Borophene

  • It is an allotrope of boron.
  • It is composed of a single-atom-thick sheet of boron atoms arranged in a two-dimensional (2D) lattice. 
  • Unlike graphene, which consists of carbon atoms in a perfect hexagonal structure, borophene is highly polymorphic — meaning its atomic structure can vary depending on the synthesis conditions, leading to multiple possible configurations. 
  • First predicted by theory in the mid-1990s, different borophene structures were experimentally confirmed in 2015.  
  • Properties: 
    • It is known for its ultra-light weight, flexibility, and exceptional strength. 
    • It has excellent properties, including thermal and electrical conductivity, high capacitance, metallic nature, etc. 
    • Its electrical and mechanical properties vary with direction, offering tunable features for specialized applications. 
    • It is highly reactive, allowing strong interaction with other atoms or molecules, which is valuable in catalysis, energy storage, and sensor technologies. 
  • Due to these outstanding properties, borophene is mainly used in a range of applications in the fields of thin-layer electronics, optoelectronics, capacitors, and biosensors. 

Why Are Recent Findings Important? 

  • Friction and wear are major causes of energy loss and equipment failure in industries worldwide.
  • Developing advanced lubricants that can effectively minimize these losses is therefore a key scientific and technological challenge. 
  • While castor oil is an attractive renewable and biodegradable lubricant, its performance can be further enhanced using suitable additives. 
  • The recent study found that adding just 0.1 percent borophene by weight to castor oil reduced friction by around 42 percent compared to pure castor oil, while also improving wear resistance and load-bearing capacity. 
  • The researchers found that borophene disperses uniformly in castor oil without requiring chemical modification. 
  • During operation, it forms a durable protective layer, known as a tribofilm, comprising iron oxides, carbon-based compounds, and boron-containing compounds. 
  • This layer reduces shear stress, protects contact surfaces, and minimises wear. 
  • This research has the potential to transform the lubrication industry by advancing renewable energy systems, marine applications, green lubrication technologies, and sustainable manufacturing.

News: DST

Borophene FAQs

Q1: What is borophene?

Ans: Borophene is a two-dimensional allotrope of boron.

Q2: What is the basic structure of borophene?

Ans: A single-atom-thick sheet of boron atoms arranged in a two-dimensional lattice.

Q3: How is borophene different from graphene?

Ans: Unlike graphene's perfect hexagonal structure, borophene is highly polymorphic and can have multiple atomic configurations.

Q4: What are the major physical properties of borophene?

Ans: Ultra-light weight, flexibility, and exceptional strength.

Q5: Does borophene have good electrical conductivity?

Ans: Yes, it has excellent electrical conductivity.

Mission Vatsalya Scheme

July 23, 2026
Mission Vatsalya Scheme

Mission Vatsalya Scheme Latest News

Recently, the Minister of State for Women and Child Development informed about the Mission Vatsalya Scheme.

About Mission Vatsalya Scheme

  • It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
  • It is implemented by the States and Union Territories (UTs) to support Children in Need of care and Protection (CNCP) and Children in Conflict with Law (CCL).
  • Objective: The objective of the Scheme is ensuring care, protection, rehabilitation and reintegration of children in difficult circumstances, including missing and vulnerable children.
  • It promotes family- and community-based care, institutional support services, counselling, and emergency outreach for children in need.
  • The Scheme provides institutional and non-institutional care and support services for children in difficult circumstances under the statutory framework of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015.
  • Section 55 of the JJ Act, 2015 provides for the evaluation of the functioning of relevant service delivery structures.
    • Under this provision, the Central Government, State Government, or District Magistrate may independently evaluate the functioning of the Juvenile Justice Board, Child Welfare Committee, Special Juvenile Police Units, registered institutions, and recognised fit facilities or persons, at such intervals and through such agencies as prescribed.
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Women and Child Development

Source: PIB

Mission Vatsalya Scheme FAQs

Q1: Mission Vatsalya is implemented by which Ministry?

Ans: Ministry of Women & Child Development

Q2: Mission Vatsalya is a centrally sponsored scheme that subsumed which earlier scheme?

Ans: Child Protection Services - CPS Scheme

Samudra Pradakshina

July 23, 2026
Samudra Pradakshina

Samudra Pradakshina Latest News

Raksha Mantri flagged-in ‘Samudra Pradakshina’, the first ever Tri-service all-women circumnavigation sailing expedition through video conferencing recently. 

About Samudra Pradakshina

  • It was the first ever Tri-service all-women circumnavigation.
  • The expedition brought together officers from the Army, Navy and Air Force on a single mission.
  • The expedition, under the leadership of Lieutenant Colonel Anuja Varudkar, with Squadron Leader Shraddha P. Raju as the Deputy Expedition Leader, was flagged off from Mumbai’s historic Gateway of India on 11 September 2025. 
  • Aboard the Indian Army Sailing Vessel (IASV) Triveni, nine women officers of the three Services returned to Mumbai on July 22, 2026 after successfully completing a 314-day voyage covering nearly 25,500 nautical miles across four oceans.  
  • The expedition successfully fulfilled all internationally recognised criteria for a circumnavigation by 
    • crossing all meridians of longitude;
    • crossing the Equator twice;
    • crossing the International Date Line; and 
    • rounding the Three Great Capes - Cape Leeuwin (Australia), Cape Horn (South America) and the Cape of Good Hope (Africa). 
  • The successful passage through the formidable Drake Passage and rounding of Cape Horn earned the crew membership of the prestigious fraternity of Cape Horners, an honour reserved for sailors who conquer one of the world’s most demanding maritime passages.
  • The mission was made possible through meticulous planning, nearly two years of intensive training, and a dedicated 24X7 shore-based support network. 

News: PIB

Samudra Pradakshina FAQs

Q1: What is Samudra Pradakshina?

Ans: It is the first-ever Tri-service all-women circumnavigation expedition.

Q2: Which three Services participated in the Samudra Pradakshina expedition?

Ans: The Indian Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force.

Q3: Who led the Samudra Pradakshina expedition?

Ans: Lieutenant Colonel Anuja Varudkar.

Q4: Which vessel was used for the Samudra Pradakshina expedition?

Ans: Indian Army Sailing Vessel (IASV) Triveni.

Karlapat Bauxite Block

July 23, 2026
Karlapat Bauxite Block

Karlapat Bauxite Block Latest News

Some of India's biggest industrial groups, including Adani, Reliance Industries, Hindalco, Vedanta Aluminium, Naveen Jindal-backed Powercem and Coal India, are eyeing Odisha's Karlapat bauxite block.

About Karlapat Bauxite Block

  • It is a bauxite deposit in Odisha's Kalahandi district.  
  • It is a greenfield mining block, which means it has not previously been commercially mined.
  • It has an estimated resource of about 207 million tonnes, comprising 153 million tonnes of proved reserves and 54 million tonnes of possible reserves. 
  • The block spans a plateau area of about 9.6 sq.km with an average ore thickness of nearly 12 metres. 
  • The deposit is classified under proved and possible resource categories and records an alumina content of about 45.2 per cent with low silica content.

 Bauxite Deposits in Odisha

  • India’s major bauxite resources are concentrated in the East Coast deposits of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.  
  • Odisha had about 2,057 million tonnes of bauxite resources.
  • Odisha accounted for 41 percent of India’s bauxite resources. 
  • In Odisha, bauxite occurs in Balangir, Kalahandi, Kandhamal, Kendujhar, Koraput, Malkangiri, Rayagada and Sundargarh districts. 

Why is Bauxite Important?

  • Bauxite is the only commercial ore used to produce aluminium. 
  • Aluminium is the second most abundant metal used by industry after silica-based materials and finds applications across transport, construction, power, chemicals and manufacturing.

News: BS

Karlapat Bauxite Block FAQs

Q1: Where is the Karlapat Bauxite Block located?

Ans: Odisha's Kalahandi district.

Q2: What type of mining block is the Karlapat Bauxite Block?

Ans: It is a greenfield mining block.

Q3: What is the estimated bauxite resource in the Karlapat Bauxite Block?

Ans: About 207 million tonnes.

Q4: What is the approximate area covered by the Karlapat Bauxite Block?

Ans: About 9.6 square kilometres.

Q5: Where are India's major bauxite resources concentrated?

Ans: In the East Coast deposits of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

Sal Borer

July 23, 2026
Sal Borer

Sal Borer Latest News

Recently, the Madhya Pradesh forest department has sought permission from the central government to fell nearly 150,000 sal trees in Dindori district after a severe infestation of sal borer insects.  

About Sal Borer

  • It is a beetle of the order- Coleoptera, family-Cerambycydae. 
  • It is the most devastating insect pest responsible for catastrophic damage of sal forests of the country.
  • Appearance: It looks dark brown in color and is about the size of a human finger.
  • It causes extensive damage to sal trees both in standing as well as freshly felled timbers.
  • The less vigorous, weak, unhealthy trees or those with reduced vitality are easily attacked or killed due to borer.
  • The attack of the borer is considered epidemic when the sal trees affected are more than 1% of the total number of trees. 

Key Facts about Sal Tree

  • It is one of the oldest and strongest trees found in India.
  • It’s called the ‘Sentinel of the Forests’ because it can live for dozens of years and has the ability to withstand environmental changes.
  • Distribution: It is found naturally in Uttarakhand, Terai region of Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and West Bengal.
  • Required Climatic Conditions for Sal Tree
    • Temperature: It can tolerate temperatures as high as 40-45°Celcius in summers and as low as 5°Celcius in winters.
    • Soil: It can be grown in the plains, provided there is light loamy soil with good drainage and the area receives approximately 1000 mm – 3000 mm of annual rainfall.
    • Climate: It requires a warm and humid climate and can thrive at altitudes up to 1500 metres above the sea level.
    • This tree can live up to 100 years and doesn’t require frequent watering or care.

Source: DTE

Sal Borer FAQs

Q1: Sal Borer is a major pest of which tree?

Ans: Sal tree / Shorea robusta

Q2: Sal Borer belongs to which family of insects?

Ans: Cerambycidae / Longhorn Beetles

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Jayanti 2026, Contributions, Legacy

July 23, 2026
Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Jayanti 2026

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Jayanti is observed annually on 23 July to mark the birth anniversary of Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Jayanti 2026 marks the 170th Jayanti of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who was born on 23 July 1856. A lawyer, scholar, journalist, and pioneering nationalist leader, Tilak played a decisive role in transforming Indian nationalism from an elite political movement into a broader movement of public mobilisation.

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Early Life and Education

Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s early life and education shaped his later commitment to national education, intellectual awakening and political activism.

  • Born as Keshav Gangadhar Tilak on 23 July 1856 in Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, he belonged to a Chitpavan Brahmin family.
  • His father, Gangadhar Ramachandra Tilak, was a teacher and Sanskrit scholar, which exposed him to education and classical Indian learning from an early age.
  • After completing his early education in Ratnagiri, he moved to Pune for higher studies.
  • He graduated in Mathematics from Deccan College, Pune, in 1877 and later obtained a Law degree from Government Law College, Bombay, in 1879.
  • His education in modern subjects, combined with his deep engagement with Indian history, Sanskrit and philosophy, shaped his later ideas on national awakening and self-rule.
  • Tilak considered education essential for developing political consciousness and national self-confidence.
    • Bal Gangadhar Tilak, along with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and Vishnushastri Chiplunkar, established the New English School in Pune in 1880 and the Deccan Education Society in 1884.
    • The initiative sought to provide modern education while cultivating intellectual and national consciousness among Indians.

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Assertive Nationalism

Tilak emerged as one of the leading voices of the Assertive Nationalist or Extremist faction within the Indian National Congress.

  • He joined the Indian National Congress in 1890 and gradually moved from demands for limited reforms towards an unequivocal demand for Swaraj.
  • Along with Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal, he formed the famous Lal-Bal-Pal leadership of assertive nationalism.
  • Their political programme emphasised Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott and National Education.
  • In 1896, he organised a campaign in Maharashtra to boycott foreign cloth in protest against an excise duty imposed on cotton.
  • He promoted Swadeshi and Boycott as instruments of economic resistance and argued that Swadeshi and nationalism were inseparable.

The growing differences between the Moderates and Assertive Nationalists culminated in the Surat Split (1907)

Cultural Mobilisation 

  • In 1893, he popularised the community celebration of Ganesh Utsav, turning it into a platform for public mobilisation, patriotic songs, and nationalist messaging.
  • In 1896, he started the Shivaji Festival to inspire nationalist ideas through historical memory of resistance to foreign rule.

These initiatives helped widen political participation beyond the educated elite.

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Key Works and Nationalist Journalism

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak was not only a political leader but also a scholar and prolific writer. Key Works of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak include: 

  • The Orion: Or Researches into the Antiquity of the Vedas (1893) - examined the antiquity of the Vedas through astronomical references.
  • The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903) - presented his theory regarding the ancient homeland of the Vedic people.
  • Gita Rahasya (1915) - written during his imprisonment in Mandalay and interpreted the Bhagavad Gita through the philosophy of Karma Yoga and active duty.

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Nationalist Journalism

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak also used the press to transform political criticism into a tool of mass political education and anti-colonial mobilisation.

  • In 1881, he founded Kesari in Marathi and the Mahratta in English to highlight public grievances, criticise colonial policies and spread nationalist consciousness.
  • Kesari addressed the Marathi-speaking public, while The Mahratta carried nationalist arguments to a wider English-reading audience.

Sedition Trials and Imprisonment 

  • In 1897 he was charged with sedition over articles in Kesari alleged to incite disaffection against the government; sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment. He was defended by D.D. Davar.
  • Following the Muzaffarpur bomb incident in 1908 involving revolutionaries Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki, Tilak published a strong defence of the revolutionaries in Kesari and was arrested on sedition charges. He was defended by M.A. Jinnah; bail was refused, and he was sentenced to six years imprisonment at Mandalay, Burma. Notably, Justice D.D. Davar, who presided over this case, had defended Tilak in his 1897 trial.
  • In 1908 (July), a sedition charge was brought over his writings in Kesari alleging incitement of disloyalty toward the government. Tilak declined legal representation and argued his own defence, forcefully challenging the charge of sedition itself.
  • He was released from Mandalay in 1914 and returned to active political life

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Home Rule Movement

After his release from Mandalay in 1914, Tilak rejoined active politics and organised the demand for self-government.

  • In April 1916, he established the Indian Home Rule League at Belagavi (then Belgaum), with G.S. Khaparde among his close associates.
  • His League operated mainly across Maharashtra, Karnataka, Berar, and the Central Provinces, while Annie Besant ran a separate, parallel Home Rule League focused on other regions of the country.
  • The League used public meetings, lectures, and pamphlets in multiple Indian languages to popularise the demand for self-government, building an extensive organisational network that mobilised thousands.
  • It is at Belgaum in 1916 that Tilak is believed to have given his famous call: "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!"
  • Tilak also contributed to a phase of wider political cooperation within the national movement.
    • The Lucknow Pact of 1916 brought the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League onto a common political platform.
    • The agreement reflected direct cooperation between Tilak and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, strengthening the joint demand for greater Indian participation in governance.

Social Reform Debates

Tilak's political legacy also involved significant, and contested, debates on social reform.

  • He opposed the Age of Consent Bill, which sought to raise the age of consent for girls, arguing against colonial intervention in Hindu social practices.
  • He has attracted criticism for giving the freedom struggle a communal shade in places, and for his conservative positions on women's emancipation and caste reform.

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Role in Freedom Struggle

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak transformed Indian nationalism from elite political petitioning into a broader movement of public mobilisation by combining political assertion with cultural awakening, economic resistance and organised nationalism.

  • Political Nationalism: Made Swaraj a central political objective and popularised self-government as a right rather than a colonial concession.
  • Mass Mobilisation: Used public festivals and cultural symbols to expand nationalist participation beyond the educated elite.
  • Economic Nationalism: Promoted Swadeshi and Boycott as instruments of resistance to colonial economic domination.
  • Nationalist Journalism: Used Kesari and The Mahratta to spread political consciousness and challenge colonial policies.
  • National Education: Promoted education as a means of developing intellectual independence and national self-confidence.
  • Assertive Nationalism: Strengthened the demand for direct political action through the Lal-Bal-Pal leadership and the Assertive Nationalist phase of Congress politics.
  • Home Rule: Organised public support for self-government through the Home Rule League.
  • National Unity: Contributed to Congress-Muslim League cooperation through the Lucknow Pact of 1916.

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Legacy and Significance

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s legacy extended beyond his role as a political leader and freedom fighter.

  • The title “Lokmanya”, meaning “accepted by the people as their leader”, reflected his immense popular influence.
  • Mahatma Gandhi described him as the “Maker of Modern India” and praised his consistent advocacy of Swaraj.
  • Jawaharlal Nehru described him as the “Father of the Indian Revolution”.
  • He combined education, journalism, cultural mobilisation, economic nationalism and political organisation to build public consciousness for self-rule.
  • He passed away on 1 August 1920 in Bombay, at a crucial phase of transition in India’s freedom struggle.

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Jayanti 2026 FAQs

Q1: When is Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Jayanti observed?

Ans: Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Jayanti is observed annually on 23 July. The year 2026 marks his 170th birth anniversary.

Q2: What are the major works of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak?

Ans: His major works include The Orion (1893), The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903), and Gita Rahasya (1915).

Q3: When and where did Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak establish the Home Rule League?

Ans: He established the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belagavi (then Belgaum).

Q4: Which newspapers were founded by Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak?

Ans: He founded Kesari in Marathi and The Mahratta in English in 1881.

Q5: What was the contribution of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak to India’s freedom struggle?

Ans: He promoted Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott and National Education, led the Lal-Bal-Pal group, used public festivals for mass mobilisation and contributed to the Lucknow Pact of 1916.

National Chambal Sanctuary

July 23, 2026
National Chambal Sanctuary

National Chambal Sanctuary Latest News

Recently, the Supreme Court said preventive detention orders should be passed against those facilitating illegal sand mining activities in and around the National Chambal Sanctuary. 

About National Chambal Sanctuary

  • It is also called the National Chambal Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary.
  • It is a tri-state protected riverine sanctuary along the Chambal River and ravines.
  • Location: It lies at the tri-junction of three states Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
  • The main focus of the sanctuary is to protect the critically endangered Gharial, Red-crowned roof turtle & endangered Ganges dolphin.
  • Chambal supports the largest population of Gharials in the wild.
  • It is listed as an important bird area (IBA).
  • Topography: The topography is full of ravines, hills & sandy beaches.
  • Vegetation: It is part of the Kathiar-Gir dry deciduous forest ecoregion.
  • Fauna: It includes threatened categories like mugger crocodile, smooth-coated otters, Striped Hyena & Indian wolves, Indian narrow-headed soft shell turtle, three- striped roof turtle & crowned river turtle. 
    • Mammals are also seen, which include Sambhar deer, Neel Gai (blue bull), Indian gazelle, Rhesus Monkey, Hanuman Langur etc.

Source: NIE

National Chambal Sanctuary FAQs

Q1: Which river forms the core of National Chambal Sanctuary?

Ans: Chambal River

Q2: National Chambal Sanctuary is famous for the conservation of which critically endangered reptile?

Ans: Gharial / Gavialis gangeticus

List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2026, Tenure, Party

July 23, 2026
Prime Ministers of India

List of Prime Ministers of India 2026: The Prime Minister of India is the head of the government and plays a crucial role in shaping the nation’s policies, governance, and international relations. They lead the Council of Ministers, make key decisions, and ensure the smooth functioning of the administration. Narendra Modi is the current Prime Minister of India, serving since 2014. He took the oath for his third term on June 9, 2024, making him the second longest-serving Prime Minister after Jawaharlal Nehru. This article provides a List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2026 highlighting their contributions and leadership.

Prime Ministers of India 2026

India has seen 15 Prime Ministers since independence, each shaping the nation’s progress. Narendra Modi, currently serving his third term in 2024, began his leadership in 2014 and has introduced transformative reforms like GST, Make in India, and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. His tenure also witnessed major decisions, including the revocation of Article 370, digital advancements, and a push for self-reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat).

List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2026

Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, took office on 15th August 1947. Currently, Narendra Modi serves as India’s 15th Prime Minister. Below is a detailed List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2026 along with their tenure and political parties.

List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2026
No. Name Start of Term End of Term Duration in years and days Party

1

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964)

15 August 1947 

27 May 1964

16 years, 286 days

Indian National Congress

2

Gulzarilal Nanda (1898–1998)

27 May 1964 

9 June 1964

13 days

–

3

Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904–1966)

9 June 1964

11 January 1966

1 year, 216 days

–

4

Indira Gandhi (1917–1984)

24 January 1966

24 March 1977

11 years, 59 days

Indian National Congress (R)

5

Morarji Desai (1896–1995)

24 March 1977

28 July 1979

2 years, 126 days

Janata Party

6

Charan Singh (1902–1987)

28 July 1979 

14 January 1980

170 days

Janata Party (Secular)

7

Indira Gandhi (1917–1984)

14 January 1980

31 October 1984

4 years, 291 days

Indian National Congress (I)

8

Rajiv Gandhi (1944–1991)

31 October 1984

2 December 1989

5 years, 32 days

Indian National Congress

9

Vishwanath Pratap Singh (1931–2008)

2 December 1989

10 November 1990

343 days

Janata Dal

10

Chandra Shekhar (1927–2007)

10 November 1990 

21 June 1991

223 days

Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya)

11

P. V. Narasimha Rao (1921–2004)

21 June 1991

16 May 1996

4 years, 330 days

Indian National Congress (I)

12

Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1924–2018)

16 May 1996

1 June 1996

16 days

Bharatiya Janata Party

13

H. D. Deve Gowda (born 1933)

1 June 1996 

21 April 1997

324 days

Janata Dal

14

Inder Kumar Gujral (1919–2012)

21 April 1997 

19 March 1998

332 days

–

15

Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1924–2018)

19 March 1998 

22 May 2004

6 years, 64 days

Bharatiya Janata Party (NDA)

16

Manmohan Singh (1932-2024)

22 May 2004

26 May 2014

10 years, 4 days

Indian National Congress (UPA)

17

Narendra Modi (born 1950)

26 May 2014

May 30, 2019

10 years, 192 days

Bharatiya Janata Party (NDA)

May 30, 2019

June 9, 2024

June 9, 2024

Incumbent

Prime Ministers of India Contributions

From Jawaharlal Nehru’s vision for a modern India to Narendra Modi’s digital and economic transformation, each leader has played a significant role in nation-building. Check out the contribution of each leader in shaping the independent India. The detailed list of Prime Minister of India in chronological order with their contributions, tenure and party has been provided here:

Narendra Modi (2014 - Present)

Narendra Modi became India’s 14th Prime Minister in 2014 and has served three consecutive terms. His tenure has been marked by bold economic and policy reforms such as GST (Goods and Services Tax), Digital India, Make in India, and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. He also played a crucial role in revoking Article 370 in Jammu & Kashmir, the implementation of the CAA.

Dr. Manmohan Singh (2004-2014)

Dr. Manmohan Singh served as India’s 13th Prime Minister and was a respected economist. He is known for introducing economic liberalization in 1991 as Finance Minister. As Prime Minister, he launched schemes like MNREGA, Right to Information (RTI), and the Indo-US Nuclear Deal. His tenure saw significant economic growth, but it was also affected by corruption scandals such as 2G, Commonwealth Games, and Coalgate.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1996, 1998-99, 1999-2004)

Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the 10th Prime Minister of India and served three terms. He is remembered for Pokhran-II nuclear tests (1998), the Kargil War (1999), and the Golden Quadrilateral highway project. His tenure strengthened India's defense and infrastructure. In 2014, he was honored with the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award.

Inder Kumar Gujral (1997-1998)

Inder Kumar Gujral, the 12th Prime Minister of India, is best known for his Gujral Doctrine, which promoted good relations with India's neighbors. His tenure was short-lived, but his diplomatic initiatives aimed at improving relations with Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh had a long-term impact.

H.D. Deve Gowda (1996-1997)

H.D. Deve Gowda served as India’s 11th Prime Minister and was a leader from Karnataka. He focused on agriculture and irrigation projects, benefiting farmers across the country. His tenure was part of a coalition government formed by the United Front.

P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991-1996)

P.V. Narasimha Rao was the 10th Prime Minister of India and is regarded as the architect of India’s economic liberalization. His government introduced Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG) reforms, which transformed India into a free-market economy. His leadership helped India recover from an economic crisis and improved foreign relations.

Chandra Shekhar (1990-1991)

Chandra Shekhar served as the 8th Prime Minister of India for a brief period. His government struggled with a weak coalition, leading to political instability. His tenure was marked by the 1991 economic crisis and the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi.

V.P. Singh (1989-1990)

V.P. Singh was the 7th Prime Minister of India and is most remembered for implementing the Mandal Commission Report, which introduced reservations for OBCs in government jobs and educational institutions. His tenure also saw political turbulence due to caste-based reservations and protests.

Rajiv Gandhi (1984-1989)

Rajiv Gandhi, the 6th Prime Minister of India, was the youngest to hold office at 40 years old. His tenure focused on modernizing India’s technology and telecom sector. He introduced computerization, reduced the voting age to 18, and initiated the Panchayati Raj system. However, his term was marred by the Bofors scandal, Shah Bano case, and Bhopal Gas Tragedy. He was assassinated by an LTTE suicide bomber in 1991.

Chaudhary Charan Singh (1979-1980)

Chaudhary Charan Singh served as the 5th Prime Minister of India. Coming from a farmer’s background, he championed agricultural and land reforms. His tenure was short-lived due to lack of parliamentary support.

Morarji Desai (1977-1979)

Morarji Desai, the 4th Prime Minister of India, was the first non-Congress Prime Minister. He led the Janata Party government after Indira Gandhi’s Emergency. He worked on dismantling the Emergency laws and improving India’s foreign relations, including with Pakistan and China.

Indira Gandhi (1966-1977, 1980-1984)

Indira Gandhi was India’s 3rd and first woman Prime Minister. She is best known for leading India during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War and implementing the Green Revolution to achieve self-sufficiency in food production. However, her decision to impose Emergency (1975-1977) remains controversial. She was assassinated in 1984 following Operation Blue Star.

Gulzarilal Nanda (1964, 1966 - Interim PM)

Gulzarilal Nanda served as interim Prime Minister twice (1964, 1966) after the deaths of Jawaharlal Nehru and Lal Bahadur Shastri. His tenure lasted only 13 days each time, but he played a role in ensuring political stability.

Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-1966)

Lal Bahadur Shastri was the 2nd Prime Minister of India. He is famous for the slogan "Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan", which honored soldiers and farmers. He led India during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War. His tenure ended abruptly due to his mysterious death in Tashkent after signing a peace agreement.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964)

Jawaharlal Nehru was India’s first and longest-serving Prime Minister. A key figure in the Indian independence movement, he played a major role in shaping modern India. His contributions include establishing IITs, AIIMS, the Planning Commission, and a non-aligned foreign policy. He was popularly called "Chacha Nehru" for his love for children.

Current Prime Minister of India 2026

The current Prime Minister of India is Shri Narendra Modi, serving his third consecutive term after winning the 2024 general elections. He first took office on May 26, 2014, and has continued to lead the nation with a focus on development, digital transformation, and global diplomacy. His leadership marks one of the longest continuous tenures in independent India’s history.

First Prime Minister of India

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India, serving from 1947 to 1964. He played a pivotal role in shaping modern India through his vision of democracy, secularism, and industrial development. Under his leadership, India laid the foundation for progress in science, education, and international diplomacy.

Second Prime Minister of India

Shri Gulzarilal Nanda served as the Second Prime Minister of India, holding office for two brief terms. He played a key role in the establishment and organization of the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC). In recognition of his remarkable contributions to the nation, he was honoured with the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in 1997.

Prime Ministers of India Important Facts

  • Jawaharlal Nehru is recognized as the architect of modern India and holds the longest tenure as Prime Minister, serving 16 years and 286 days.
  • Indira Gandhi was India’s first and only female Prime Minister, holding office for 15 years and 350 days across two terms.
  • Rajiv Gandhi became India’s youngest Prime Minister at age 40, assuming office on October 31, 1984.
  • Morarji Desai was India’s first non-Congress Prime Minister, serving from March 24, 1977, to July 28, 1979.
  • Atal Bihari Vajpayee had the shortest tenure of 16 days during his first term in 1996.
  • Manmohan Singh was India’s first Sikh Prime Minister, serving from May 22, 2004, to May 26, 2014.
  • P. V. Narasimha Rao was the first Prime Minister from South India, serving from June 21, 1991, to May 16, 1996.
  • Gulzarilal Nanda served as acting Prime Minister twice, each time for just 13 days.
  • Narendra Modi has been in office since May 26, 2014, and is currently serving his third consecutive term after being re-elected in June 2024.

Who is the Prime Minister of India 2026?

The Prime Minister of India is the head of the Government and the chief executive authority responsible for leading the Union Council of Ministers and administering the country.

  • Constitutional Basis: The office of the Prime Minister is provided under Articles 74 and 75 of the Constitution of India.
  • Appointment: Appointed by the President of India, usually the leader of the majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha.
  • Qualifications: Must be a citizen of India and a member of either the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha, or become a member within six months of appointment.
  • Council of Ministers: Heads and leads the Council of Ministers and allocates portfolios among ministers.
  • Chief Advisor to the President: Acts as the principal advisor to the President on governmental matters.
  • Parliamentary Leader: Leads the majority party or coalition and guides legislative business in Parliament.
  • Policy Formulation: Plays a central role in framing and implementing national policies and development programs.
  • Administrative Functions: Coordinates the work of various ministries and ensures smooth functioning of the government.
  • Emergency Role: Provides leadership and coordination during national emergencies and crises.
  • Foreign Affairs: Represents India in international forums and oversees major foreign policy decisions.
  • Collective Responsibility: Ensures that the Council of Ministers remains collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
  • Tenure: Holds office as long as they enjoy the confidence of the majority in the Lok Sabha.
  • Removal: Can resign voluntarily or cease to hold office if they lose the confidence of the Lok Sabha.

Prime Minister Constitutional Provisions

Important Constitutional Provisions Related to the Prime Minister has been provided below:

  • Article 74: Provides for a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as its head to aid and advise the President.
  • Article 75: Deals with the appointment, tenure, salaries, and collective responsibility of ministers.
  • Article 78: Specifies the duties of the Prime Minister in communicating decisions of the Council of Ministers to the President.
  • Article 88: Grants ministers, including the Prime Minister, the right to participate in parliamentary proceedings.
Also Check Related Post
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Cabinet Ministers of India Prime Ministers of India
Deputy Prime Minister of India Presidents of India
Ministry of External Affairs

List of Prime Ministers of India 2026 FAQs

Q1: Who is the Prime Minister 2026 in India?

Ans: Narendra Modi, currently serving his third term in 2026.

Q2: Who was the first CM of India?

Ans: The first chief minister in India was Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant.

Q3: Who is the longest serving PM?

Ans: The longest-serving prime minister was Jawaharlal Nehru, also the first prime minister, whose tenure lasted 16 years and 286 days.

Q4: Who is the first lady Prime Minister of India?

Ans: Indira Gandhi was the first woman Prime Minister of India and served the nation for two terms.

Q5: Who is the 12th Prime Minister of India?

Ans: Shri Inder Kumar Gujral was sworn in as the 12th Prime Minister of India on 21st April, 1997.

Chandra Shekhar Azad Jayanti 2026, Biography, Contributions, History

July 23, 2026
Chandra Shekhar Azad Jayanti

The Birth Anniversary of Chandra Shekhar Azad is observed every year on 23 July to remember one of India’s most fearless revolutionary leaders. Azad dedicated his short life to the freedom movement and became a symbol of courage, sacrifice and determination. His leadership in revolutionary organisations, role in major anti colonial actions and lifelong commitment to national independence continue to inspire people across India.

Birth Anniversary of Chandra Shekhar Azad 2026

Chandra Shekhar Azad Jayanti 2026 will be observed on 23 July 2026 across India through tribute ceremonies, educational programmes and public remembrance events. Government leaders, educational institutions and organisations honour his contribution to the freedom struggle. On his birth anniversary in 2025, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Defence Minister Rajnath Singh paid tributes, describing his fearless courage, unwavering patriotism, supreme sacrifice and lasting inspiration for generations of Indians.

Chandra Shekhar Azad Biography

A revolutionary who devoted his life to India's freedom, Chandra Shekhar Azad remains one of the most respected figures in modern Indian history.

  • Chandra Shekhar Azad was born as Chandra Shekhar Tiwari on 23 July 1906 in Bhabra village, now Chandrashekhar Azad Nagar in Madhya Pradesh. His birthplace was then part of the princely state of Alirajpur.
  • Growing up in a financially modest family, he later moved to Benaras (Varanasi) for Sanskrit studies, where he developed strong nationalist ideas after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
  • At only 15 years of age, he joined Mahatma Gandhi's Non Cooperation Movement (1920-22) and participated in protest activities, including picketing liquor shops.
  • After his arrest, he identified himself as "Azad", named his father "Swatantra" and gave his address as "Jail". Following police flogging, he adopted Azad permanently and vowed never to be captured alive.
  • When the Non Cooperation Movement was withdrawn in 1922, he shifted from non violent protest to Revolutionary Activities, believing armed resistance was necessary for India's freedom.
  • Chandra Shekhar Azad died on 27 February 1931 at Alfred Park, Allahabad (now Prayagraj) at the age of 24. He shot himself with his last bullet, fulfilling his pledge never to be captured alive. The park was later renamed Chandra Shekhar Azad Park in his honour.

Chandra Shekhar Azad Contributions

Chandra Shekhar Azad strengthened the revolutionary movement through leadership, organisation and courageous action against British rule.

  • Hindustan Republican Army (HRA): Azad became an important member of the Hindustan Republican Army (HRA) led by Ram Prasad Bismil, working to organise revolutionary activities against British rule.
  • Kakori Train Action: He participated in the Kakori Conspiracy (1925), planned to raise funds for revolutionary activities. Among the Kakori conspirators, Azad successfully escaped arrest and remained underground.
  • Reorganisation of HRA into HSRA: In 1928, along with Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Shiv Verma and Vijay Kumar Sinha, he reorganised the HRA into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) with socialism among its major objectives.
  • Military leadership: While Bhagat Singh served as the political ideologue, Azad led the military wing of HSRA by planning operations, training recruits, organising weapons and coordinating revolutionary networks.
  • Lahore Action: Azad played a key role in planning the action against British officer John Saunders in 1928. The shooting was carried out by Bhagat Singh and Rajguru, while Azad supported the escape and resisted pursuing police personnel.
  • Slogan: His famous declaration, "Dushman ki goliyon ka hum saamna karenge. Azad hi rahein hain, azad hi rahenge," reflected his lifelong commitment to remain free until his final moment.

Chandra Shekhar Azad Jayanti 2026 Observance

The Birth Anniversary of Chandra Shekhar Azad is marked nationwide by remembrance programmes highlighting his courage, sacrifice and contribution to India's freedom movement.

  • On 23 July 2025, Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi honoured Chandra Shekhar Azad, stating that his courage and patriotism hold a proud place in India's freedom struggle and continue inspiring generations.
  • Defence Minister Rajnath Singh remembered Azad's lifelong struggle against British rule, highlighting his efforts to awaken self respect, self confidence, national consciousness and patriotism among countless young Indians.
  • Memorial activities: Tribute ceremonies are organised at Chandra Shekhar Azad Park in Prayagraj and other memorial sites, where people offer floral respects, organise cultural programmes and remember his supreme sacrifice for the nation.

Birth Anniversary of Chandra Shekhar Azad 2026 FAQs

Q1: When is the Birth Anniversary of Chandra Shekhar Azad observed?

Ans: The Chandra Shekhar Azad Jayanti is observed every year on 23 July to honour the revolutionary freedom fighter born on 23 July 1906.

Q2: What was the original name of Chandra Shekhar Azad?

Ans: Chandra Shekhar Azad was born as Chandra Shekhar Tiwari in Bhabra village, now Chandrashekhar Azad Nagar, in present day Madhya Pradesh.

Q3: Which revolutionary organisation did Chandra Shekhar Azad lead?

Ans: Chandra Shekhar Azad led the military wing of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) after its reorganisation in 1928 with Bhagat Singh and other revolutionaries.

Q4: How did Chandra Shekhar Azad die?

Ans: On 27 February 1931, surrounded by British police at Alfred Park, Allahabad (now Prayagraj), Chandra Shekhar Azad shot himself to avoid being captured alive.

Q5: What role did Chandra Shekhar Azad play in the Kakori Train Robbery?

Ans: Chandra Shekhar Azad participated in the Kakori train robbery of 1925 to raise funds for revolutionary activities and successfully escaped arrest afterward.

Tear Gas, Composition, Working, Types, Uses, Health Effects

July 23, 2026
Tear Gas

Tear gas, also known as a lachrymator, is a chemical irritant widely used by law enforcement agencies for crowd control, riot management, and self-defense. Although commonly called a "gas," it is actually a fine aerosol or solid particles dispersed into the air. Tear gas temporarily affects the eyes, skin, and respiratory system, causing intense irritation that forces people to move away from the affected area. 

What Is Tear Gas Made Of?

Tear gas was recently in the news after Delhi Police used tear gas shells and baton charges to disperse protesters during the "Chalo Sansad" march organised by the youth-led Cockroach Janta Party (CJP) on 20 July 2026.

How Does Tear Gas Work?

Tear gas consists of chemical irritants that stimulate the body's sensory nerves. These chemicals are packaged in grenades, cartridges, spray canisters, or projectiles and released as fine airborne particles.

The most commonly used tear gas agents include:

  • CS (2-Chlorobenzalmalononitrile): The most widely used riot control agent globally.
  • CN (Chloroacetophenone): An older agent that is generally more toxic than CS.
  • CR (Dibenzoxazepine): A highly potent irritant effective even at low concentrations.
  • OC (Oleoresin Capsicum): A natural extract from chili peppers, commonly known as pepper spray.
  • Other components may include propellants, solvents, and pyrotechnic compounds that help disperse the chemical.

Types of Tear Gas Agents (CS, CN, CR, and OC)

Different tear gas agents vary in their chemical composition, strength, and duration of effects. While all are designed to temporarily incapacitate individuals by irritating the eyes, skin, and respiratory system, they differ in toxicity and common applications.

1. CS (2-Chlorobenzalmalononitrile)

  • Most widely used tear gas agent for riot control.
  • Causes intense eye irritation, coughing, and breathing discomfort.
  • Effective for dispersing crowds within seconds.
  • Considered less toxic than CN when used appropriately.

2. CN (Chloroacetophenone)

  • One of the earliest tear gas agents developed.
  • Produces severe eye, skin, and respiratory irritation.
  • More toxic than CS and may cause prolonged effects.
  • Its use has declined in many countries due to health concerns.

3. CR (Dibenzoxazepine)

  • A highly potent riot control agent effective in very small quantities.
  • Causes intense burning of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.
  • More resistant to removal with water than CS or CN.
  • Can produce longer-lasting irritation after exposure.

4. OC (Oleoresin Capsicum)

  • A natural extract derived from chili peppers (capsaicin).
  • Commonly known as pepper spray.
  • Frequently used by police and individuals for self-defense.
  • Causes temporary burning, excessive tearing, coughing, and temporary blindness.

Uses of Tear Gas in Law Enforcement

Tear gas is used by law enforcement agencies as a less-lethal crowd control tool to maintain public order and manage situations where there is a risk of violence. It is intended to temporarily disperse individuals while reducing the need for more forceful methods.

  • Dispersing violent crowds during protests, riots, and unlawful assemblies.
  • Controlling public disturbances to restore law and order.
  • Managing prison riots and preventing escalation within correctional facilities.
  • Supporting high-risk arrests by temporarily incapacitating suspects.
  • Assisting hostage rescue and tactical operations in confined or high-risk environments.
  • Creating safe evacuation routes during emergencies or security incidents.
  • Protecting law enforcement personnel by maintaining a safe distance from aggressive individuals.
  • Reducing reliance on lethal force in situations where non-lethal measures are appropriate.
  • Supporting border security and checkpoint operations in certain high-risk situations, as permitted by law.
  • Used under legal and operational guidelines, with emphasis on necessity, proportionality, and minimum force.

Health Effects of Tear Gas Exposure

Tear gas exposure mainly affects the eyes, skin, and respiratory system, causing immediate irritation that is usually temporary. However, prolonged exposure or exposure in enclosed spaces can result in serious health complications, particularly for vulnerable individuals.

  • Causes burning, redness, excessive tearing, eye pain, and blurred vision.
  • Triggers coughing, sneezing, sore throat, chest tightness, and difficulty breathing.
  • Leads to skin irritation, burning sensation, redness, itching, and rashes.
  • May cause temporary disorientation, dizziness, nausea, and vomiting.
  • Can worsen asthma, COPD, and other chronic respiratory conditions.
  • Prolonged or high-dose exposure may result in chemical burns, corneal injuries, and severe respiratory distress.
  • Children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with pre-existing respiratory or eye conditions are at higher risk of complications.
  • Moving to fresh air, rinsing the eyes with clean water, washing exposed skin, and removing contaminated clothing can help reduce the effects.
  • Medical attention should be sought if symptoms persist or breathing difficulties become severe.

Is Tear Gas Banned Under International Law?

Tear gas is not completely banned under international law, but its use is subject to strict legal restrictions. While it is prohibited as a method of warfare, it is generally permitted for domestic law enforcement purposes, including crowd control, under national laws and international human rights standards.

  • The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) prohibits the use of tear gas and other riot control agents as a method of warfare.
  • The CWC allows the use of tear gas for domestic law enforcement, including riot control and public order management.
  • Countries may use tear gas only in accordance with their national laws and operational guidelines.
  • International human rights standards require that its use be necessary, proportionate, and lawful.
  • Law enforcement agencies are expected to minimize harm and avoid excessive or indiscriminate use.
  • Misuse of tear gas, particularly in confined spaces or against peaceful demonstrators, may raise human rights concerns and attract international scrutiny.
  • The legality of tear gas depends on the context in which it is used, rather than the chemical agent itself.

Tear Gas FAQs

Q1: What is tear gas?

Ans: Tear gas is a chemical irritant used by law enforcement agencies to temporarily disperse crowds by causing irritation to the eyes, skin, and respiratory system.

Q2: Is tear gas actually a gas?

Ans: No. Tear gas is not a true gas; it consists of fine solid particles or liquid aerosols dispersed into the air.

Q3: What are the main types of tear gas?

Ans: The most common tear gas agents are CS (2-Chlorobenzalmalononitrile), CN (Chloroacetophenone), CR (Dibenzoxazepine), and OC (Oleoresin Capsicum or pepper spray).

Q4: How long do the effects of tear gas last?

Ans: The effects usually begin within seconds and typically subside within 15–60 minutes after moving to fresh air, although recovery may take longer after heavy exposure.

Q5: What are the common health effects of tear gas?

Ans: Common effects include burning eyes, excessive tearing, coughing, sneezing, throat irritation, skin irritation, chest tightness, and temporary blurred vision.

Kawal Tiger Reserve

July 23, 2026
Kawal Tiger Reserve

Kawal Tiger Reserve Latest News

The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) recently identified Kawal Tiger Reserve in Telangana as a ‘priority recipient site’ for tiger recovery.

About Kawal Tiger Reserve

  • It is located in the state of Telangana.
  • It is along the banks of the river Godavari, forming part of the Deccan peninsula-central highlands.
  • The reserve is nestled in the Sahyadri Mountain Ranges.
  • Geographically, the reserve is situated at the southernmost tip of the Central Indian Tiger Landscape, having linkages with the Tadoba-Andhari (Maharashtra) and Indravati (Chhattisgarh) tiger reserves.
  • Rivers: It is a major catchment of the river Godavari and local rivulets like Peddavagu and Kadam.
  • Habitat: It has diverse habitats comprising dense forests, grasslands, rivers, streams, and water bodies.
  • Vegetation: Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest.
  • Flora: It consists of teak along with bamboo and other species like Anogeissus latifolia, Mitragyna parviflora, Terminalia crenulata, Terminalia arjuna, Boswellia serrata, etc.
  • Fauna:  
    • It has a faunal diversity which is typical of the Deccan Plateau.
    • The major wild animals include: tiger, nilgai, chousinga, chinkara, black buck, sambar, spotted deer, wild dog, wolf, jackal, fox, leopard,  and the jungle cat.

News: TOI

Kawal Tiger Reserve FAQs

Q1: Where is Kawal Tiger Reserve located?

Ans: It is located in the state of Telangana.

Q2: Along the banks of which river is Kawal Tiger Reserve located?

Ans: The Godavari River.

Q3: Kawal Tiger Reserve forms part of which physiographic region?

Ans: The Deccan Peninsula–Central Highlands.

Q4: What is the dominant forest type in Kawal Tiger Reserve?

Ans: Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest.

India’s 8th WTO Trade Policy Review (TPR) – Reaffirming Commitment to an Inclusive Multilateral Trading System

July 23, 2026
WTO Trade Policy Review (TPR)

WTO Trade Policy Review (TPR) Latest News

  • India's 8th Trade Policy Review (TPR) commenced at the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Geneva on 21 July 2026 (~65 WTO Members participated), covering the review period 1 January 2021–31 December 2025. 
  • Led by Commerce Secretary Rajesh Agarwal, India presented its trade policy achievements, economic performance and reform agenda while responding to questions from WTO members. 
  • The review serves as a transparency mechanism to assess members' trade policies and their consistency with WTO principles.

What is the WTO Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TRPM)?

  • The TPRM is a transparency exercise under the WTO. It enables members to periodically examine each other's trade policies and practices.
  • The objective is to improve transparency, predictability and accountability in the multilateral trading system rather than to enforce compliance.

India’s Economic and Trade Performance

  • India highlighted its resilience despite geopolitical tensions, supply-chain disruptions and rising global protectionism.
  • Key achievements:
    • Recorded nearly 8% average annual GDP growth during 2021–2025.
    • Achieved record exports of USD 863.1 billion in 2025–26.
    • Continued pursuing the vision of Viksit Bharat @2047 while addressing the developmental needs of nearly one-fifth of the world's population.

Major Trade and Economic Reforms Highlighted

  • India showcased a broad range of structural and trade-related reforms aimed at enhancing competitiveness and integration with the global economy.
  • Key initiatives:
    • Aatmanirbhar Bharat: Strengthening domestic manufacturing while integrating with Global Value Chains (GVCs).
    • Jan Vishwas initiative: Regulatory simplification and ease of doing business.
    • Digital customs and trade facilitation measures.
    • Logistics modernisation and quality infrastructure development.
    • Expansion of Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) for financial inclusion and trade efficiency.
    • Promotion of Artificial Intelligence (AI), innovation and startups.
    • Focus on sustainability, agricultural resilience and inclusive development.
    • Expansion of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs).
    • Continued support through South-South Cooperation and the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) Programme.
  • India reiterated its support for balanced, development-oriented WTO reforms that strengthen the multilateral trading system while safeguarding the interests of developing countries.

Recognition from WTO Leadership and Members

  • WTO TPR Body (TPRB):
    • Recognised India as one of the fastest-growing major economies.
    • Appreciated India's leadership in digitally delivered services exports.
    • Commended reforms in DPI, financial inclusion and trade facilitation.
    • Welcomed India's acceptance of the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, following the deposit of its Instrument of Acceptance.
    • Praised India's timely responses to advance questions, reflecting transparency under the TPR mechanism.
  • Active participant (Brazil): Brazil's representative highlighted -
    • Success of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in creating a unified domestic market.
    • India's digital trade reforms and expanding export strategy.
    • Importance of recent RTAs.
    • India's Duty-Free Tariff Preference (DFTP) Scheme for Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
    • India's DPI as a model for other developing countries.

Key Area of Conflict

  • India and key WTO members are at loggerheads over the 66-nation Agreement on Electronic Commerce (ECA), with India challenging the legality of bypassing multilateral consensus.
  • Core arguments and objections:
    • Consensus rule: 
      • India maintains that adding any new plurilateral pact to Annex 4 requires the agreement of all WTO members under the Marrakesh Agreement.
      • It failed to pass during General Council meetings in 2025.
      • Annex 4 contains plurilateral trade agreements that are binding only on the specific member countries who choose to accept them.
      • It currently includes two active pacts: the Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft and the Revised Agreement on Government Procurement.
      • Interim validity: Following the deadlock, 66 participating countries issued a declaration, establishing an interim arrangement to operationalize the e-commerce pact.
    • Institutional overreach: New Delhi formally questioned the institutional and legal basis, challenging a partial-membership deal.
  • Broader multilateral divide:
    • Plurilateral push: Proponent nations argue that coalition-based "Joint Statement Initiatives" are necessary to prevent total paralysis on new-age trade rules when complete consensus is unachievable.
    • Systemic risk: India contends that allowing subsets of countries to operationalize unapproved agreements undermines the core multilateral character of the global trading system.

Significance of TPR for India

  • Soft power and cultural diplomacy: On the sidelines of the review, India organised an exhibition showcasing  diverse Indian products, and traditional papier-mâché handicrafts.
  • Reinforces: India's image as a responsible stakeholder in the multilateral trading system.
  • Demonstrates: India's attempt to balance self-reliance (Aatmanirbhar Bharat) with greater global economic integration.
  • Highlights: India's growing role in digital trade, services exports, and South-South cooperation.
  • Strengthens: India's credibility in ongoing WTO negotiations and reform discussions.
  • Reflects: India's emphasis on inclusive, transparent and development-oriented global trade governance.

Source: PIB

WTO Trade Policy Review (TPR) FAQs

Q1: What is the primary objective of the WTO's Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)?

Ans: To enhance transparency, predictability and accountability in members' trade policies through periodic peer review.

Q2: How does Aatmanirbhar Bharat complement India's global trade strategy?

Ans: It strengthens domestic productive capacities while promoting deeper integration into Global Value Chains (GVCs).

Q3: Why is India's acceptance of the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies significant?

Ans: It demonstrates India's commitment to sustainable fisheries and constructive engagement in strengthening the multilateral trading system.

Q4: What role does Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) play in India's trade policy?

Ans: DPI enhances trade facilitation, financial inclusion, digital commerce and overall economic competitiveness.

Q5: Why are Quality Control Orders (QCOs) an important issue in WTO discussions on India?

Ans: They seek to improve product quality and consumer safety but are scrutinised for their potential impact on international trade.

Flash Floods in India Causes, Climate Impact & Adaptation Strategies

July 23, 2026
Flash Floods in India

Flash Floods in India Latest News

  • Flash floods have emerged as a deadly and recurring hazard across India, claiming thousands of lives and damaging infrastructure annually. 
  • Tragedies in Himachal Pradesh (July 2025), Kerala’s Wayanad (July 2024), Ladakh (June 2024), and Sikkim (October 2023) underline the severity of the crisis. 
  • These sudden and intense floods, primarily triggered by extreme rainfall, have become more frequent with rising global temperatures — increasing from 132 events in 2020 to 184 in 2022, as per the Union Jal Shakti Ministry.
  • Despite the mounting threat, there remains a lack of detailed research to pinpoint the most vulnerable regions, hampering the effectiveness of mitigation strategies like early warning systems. 

Study Related to Flash Floods in India

  • A recent IIT Gandhinagar study, published in Nature Hazards, addresses the lack of granular data on flash flood vulnerability in India.
  • The study, ‘Drivers of flash floods in the Indian sub-continental river basins’, identifies the Himalayas, western coast, and Central India as key hotspots, using hydrological and geomorphological data to map sub-basin susceptibility. 
  • In the Himalayas, steep terrain and elevation drive flood risk, while in the West Coast and Central India, rapid runoff—termed "flashiness"—plays a key role. 
  • The study finds that nearly 75% of flash floods result from a combination of extreme rainfall and already saturated soil, with only 25% due to precipitation alone. 
  • Alarmingly, even previously low-risk basins are witnessing rising extreme rainfall, suggesting that climate change may create new flash flood zones in the future.

Key Drivers Behind Flash Floods in India

  • The study reveals that only 25% of flash floods in India are caused solely by extreme rainfall. 
  • Most incidents result from a combination of heavy precipitation and pre-existing soil saturation. 
    • When the ground is already wet, it cannot absorb additional rainfall, leading to rapid runoff and increased flood risk.
  • Notably, only 23% of extreme rainfall events trigger flash floods within six hours. Instead, prolonged periods of both low- and high-intensity rain are more likely to cause such disasters.
  • The study also highlights regional variations. 
    • In the western coast and Central India, sub-basins react quickly to rainfall due to their high "flashiness" — the tendency of water levels to rise rapidly. 
    • In the Himalayan region, steep terrain and high relief further elevate the risk. 
    • Within major river basins like the Ganga, flash flood susceptibility differs — sub-basins in the southern Himalayan stretch are more prone, while central areas show lower risk. 
  • This points to how terrain and local climatic conditions strongly influence flash flood vulnerability.

Climate Change Intensifies Flash Flood Risk in India

  • Rising global temperatures are significantly contributing to the increase in frequency and severity of flash floods. 
  • As the atmosphere warms, it retains more moisture — about 7% more for every 1°C rise — leading to heavier rainfall events. 
    • In India, from 1981 to 2020, the incidence of extreme rainfall during the pre-monsoon season doubled. 
    • During the monsoon, post-monsoon, and winter seasons, extreme precipitation increased by 56%, 40%, and 12.5% respectively. 
    • Notably, over 75% of flash floods between 1980 and 2018 occurred during the monsoon season.
  • The study also shows that flash floods have risen sharply since 1995, especially in the Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Krishna river basins. 
  • Interestingly, many regions that were not previously flood-prone are now experiencing more "wet hours" and higher streamflow due to warming temperatures.
    • 51% of non-prone sub-basins showing increased rainfall and 66.5% showing higher streamflow. 
  • Conversely, some existing flood-prone areas are seeing a decline in wet hours, indicating shifting climate patterns and flood vulnerabilities.

Region-Specific Adaptation Key to Mitigating Flash Flood Risks

  • The study highlights the need for region-specific adaptation strategies tailored to topography, soil conditions, and not just rainfall intensity. 
  • Such localized approaches can strengthen early warning systems, improve disaster preparedness, and support long-term resilience planning. 
  • Researchers emphasize the urgency of identifying emerging flash flood hotspots and investing in climate-resilient infrastructure to reduce the impact of extreme events. 
  • Additionally, with shifting rainfall patterns and rising temperatures, improved land-use planning and integrated flood management are essential for effective mitigation.

Source: IE | Nature

Flash Floods in India FAQs

Q1: What causes most flash floods in India?

Ans: A combination of extreme rainfall and pre-saturated soil triggers most flash floods across Indian river basins.

Q2: How does climate change influence flash floods?

Ans: Rising temperatures increase atmospheric moisture, leading to more intense rainfall and higher flash flood risks.

Q3: Which regions are flash flood hotspots?

Ans: The Himalayas, Western Coast, and Central India are most vulnerable to frequent flash floods.

Q4: What is ‘flashiness’ in flood context?

Ans: Flashiness refers to rapid water level rise after rainfall, heightening flash flood potential.

Q5: What adaptation measures are needed?

Ans: Region-specific strategies, better land use planning, and early warning systems are vital for effective flash flood mitigation.

Internet Shutdowns in India – Legal Framework and Supreme Court Rulings

July 23, 2026
Internet Shutdowns

Internet Shutdowns Latest News

  • Mobile internet services were shut down in parts of Central Delhi during the 'Chalo Sansad' protest, raising fresh concerns about the legal framework governing internet shutdowns and their impact on fundamental rights.

About Internet Shutdowns

  • An internet shutdown, as defined by the web rights advocacy organisation Access Now, is "an intentional disruption of internet or electronic communications, rendering them inaccessible or effectively unusable, for a specific population or within a location, often to control the flow of information."
  • Forms of Internet Shutdowns
    • Full network disruptions: complete blackout of internet services.
    • Slowing down internet speed: throttling connectivity.
    • Blocking specific platforms: restricting access to particular websites or apps.
    • Mobile-only shutdowns: disabling mobile internet while keeping broadband active.
  • When Are They Ordered?
    • According to the International Federation of Journalists, most internet shutdowns are ordered when:
      • Large numbers of people gather for political reasons.
      • Peaceful demonstrations are expected to take place.
      • Violent protests may occur.
      • Religious celebrations draw large crowds.
      • Public examinations are being conducted to prevent cheating.

Legal Framework Governing Internet Shutdowns

  • Earlier Framework
    • Internet shutdowns in India were earlier governed by:
    • Section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885.
    • Temporary Suspension of Telecom Services (Public Emergency or Public Safety) Rules, 2017.
  • Current Framework
    • Section 20 of the Telecommunications Act, 2023.
    • Telecommunications (Temporary Suspension of Services) Rules, 2024.
    • Under Section 20(2)(b) of the Telecommunications Act, 2023, telecommunication services may be suspended only:
      • On the occurrence of a public emergency.
      • In the interest of public safety.
      • On the grounds specified in the provision.
      • For reasons recorded in writing.
  • Procedural Requirements
    • Be reasoned and published.
    • Be limited in area and duration.
    • Be issued by the competent authority under the 2024 Rules.
    • Consider whether less restrictive measures would be sufficient.
    • Not remain in force for over 15 days.
    • A protest, by itself, is not a lawful ground for suspending internet services.

Continued Use of Outdated Provisions

  • Despite the updated legal framework, a review by the Digital Defenders Network found that several shutdown orders issued by State governments since late 2024 continue to invoke the older Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 and the 2017 Rules. For instance:
  • The Secretary, Home Department, Uttar Pradesh, issued an internet suspension order for Bareilly district on October 2, 2025.
  • The order invoked Section 7 of the Telegraph Act read with Rule 2(1) of the 2017 Rules.
  • By continuing to rely on these outdated provisions, some States appear to have bypassed the procedural safeguards introduced under the 2024 Rules.

Supreme Court Rulings on Internet Shutdowns

  • The Anuradha Bhasin Case (2020)
    • In the landmark Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) case, the Supreme Court held that access to the internet is closely connected to fundamental freedoms under the Constitution:
    • Article 19(1)(a): freedom of speech and expression.
    • Article 19(1)(g): freedom of trade and profession.
  • The Court held that any shutdown must:
    • Be backed by law.
    • Pursue a legitimate objective.
    • Be necessary and proportionate.
    • Be the least restrictive measure available.
    • Be limited in scope and duration.
    • Be accompanied by detailed reasons.
    • Be published for public scrutiny.
    • Be reviewed by a competent committee.
  • The Court observed that "complete broad suspension of telecom services, be it the internet or otherwise, must be considered by the State only if 'necessary' and 'unavoidable'."

India's Track Record on Internet Shutdowns

  • India continues to record one of the highest numbers of internet shutdowns in the world:
    • Access Now's 2025 report recorded 65 shutdowns across 12 States and Union Territories.
    • India has recorded about 24 shutdowns in 2026 so far.
  • According to the SFLC Internet Shutdown Tracker:
    • Jammu & Kashmir: the highest number with about 449 since 2012.
    • Rajasthan: 115 shutdowns.
    • Manipur: 62 shutdowns.

 

News Summary

  • Mobile internet services were shut down in parts of Central Delhi during the 'Chalo Sansad' protest organised by the Cockroach Janta Party (CJP). Key aspects include:
    • Thousands of people gathered on the opening day of Parliament's Monsoon Session.
    • Protesters demanded the resignation of Union Education Minister Dharmendra Pradhan.
    • The protest followed the NEET paper leaks and irregularities in the CBSE school examination process.
    • The internet shutdown remained in place until the evening.
    • The Ministry of Home Affairs imposed the order across 150 cell sites, according to an industry source.
  • The order was imposed under Clause (b) of Sub-section (2) of Section 20 of the Telecommunication Act, 2023, read with the 2024 Rules.

Legal Recourse Against Shutdown Orders

  • A shutdown order may be challenged in court through:
    • High Court under Article 226: for writ petitions within a state's jurisdiction.
    • Supreme Court under Article 32: in appropriate cases involving fundamental rights.
  • Courts can examine whether the order was:
    • Lawful and issued by the competent authority.
    • Proportionate to the situation.
    • Properly limited in area and duration.
    • Supported by valid reasons.
  • Indefinite suspensions are unlawful. The government must publish its orders and provide reasons capable of judicial review.

Way Forward

  • Legislative Reforms
    • Ensure strict compliance with the Telecommunications Act, 2023 and the 2024 Rules.
    • Discontinue the use of outdated Telegraph Act provisions.
    • Establish clearer criteria for what constitutes a public emergency.
    • Provide for automatic judicial review of shutdown orders.
  • Institutional Safeguards
    • Strengthen the review committee mechanism.
    • Ensure timely publication of all shutdown orders.
    • Maintain a central public database of shutdowns.
    • Enable easier legal challenges to shutdown orders.
  • Policy Approaches
    • Explore less restrictive alternatives such as targeted platform blocking.
    • Provide advance notice where possible.
    • Ensure the shortest possible duration of shutdowns.
    • Consider the cumulative impact on affected populations.
  • Transparency Measures
    • Regular reporting to Parliament on shutdowns.
    • Public consultations on the framework.
    • Enhanced judicial oversight of orders.
    • Civil society engagement in policy formulation.

Source: TH

Internet S66hutdowns FAQs

Q1: Which law currently governs internet shutdowns in India?

Ans: Internet shutdowns are governed by Section 20 of the Telecommunications Act, 2023 and the Telecommunications (Temporary Suspension of Services) Rules, 2024.

Q2: What was the significance of the Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) case?

Ans: The Supreme Court held that access to the internet is linked to fundamental freedoms under Articles 19(1)(a) and 19(1)(g), and any shutdown must be lawful, proportionate, and the least restrictive measure.

Q3: How many internet shutdowns did India record in 2025?

Ans: According to Access Now's 2025 report, India recorded 65 internet shutdowns across 12 States and Union Territories.

Q4: Which state has recorded the highest number of internet shutdowns in India?

Ans: Jammu & Kashmir has recorded the highest number of internet shutdowns, with about 449 since 2012, according to the SFLC Internet Shutdown Tracker.

Q5: What is the maximum duration of an internet suspension order under the 2024 Rules?

Ans: Under the 2024 Rules, a suspension order cannot remain in force for over 15 days.

Plainclothes Policing: Legal Position and Accountability Concerns in India

July 23, 2026
Plainclothes Policing

Plainclothes Policing Latest News

  • Videos from the July 20 "Sansad Chalo" protest in Delhi showed police and Rapid Action Force (RAF) personnel in civilian clothes, or in uniform without visible nameplates. 
  • This has triggered a debate on the legality of unidentified policing during crowd control situations.

What Triggered the Controversy

  • Protesters organised by the Cockroach Janata Party (CJP), demanding action over the NEET paper leak and the resignation of the Education Minister, marched towards Parliament. 
  • Police lathi-charged the swelling crowd, leading to violent clashes and injuries on both sides. 
  • Social media videos allegedly showed unidentified men in civilian clothes using police-style lathis against protesters, while uniformed personnel without nameplates ignored questions about their identity. 
  • Delhi Police has not officially responded, but has reportedly directed personnel at the protest site to report in uniform going forward.

Is Hiding Identity Legal?

  • Certain operations — particularly intelligence gathering — genuinely require concealment of identity or even impersonation. 
  • However, routine policing is bound by statutory procedure and judicial guidelines, which generally require identifiability.

Statutory basis

  • Maintenance of public order is governed by Chapter XI of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), Sections 148–160 (earlier Chapter X of the CrPC, formerly Chapter IX). 
  • While the law does not explicitly mandate identification, only a magistrate or a "police officer" is empowered to order a crowd to disperse — implying that the officer issuing such a command must be identifiable. 
  • Legal experts argue that an unidentifiable person cannot lawfully exercise this statutory power.

Judicial precedent

  • In DK Basu vs State of West Bengal (1997), the Supreme Court mandated that arresting officers must carry clear, visible identification. 
  • Though this ruling concerned arrests rather than crowd control, it reflects the judiciary's broader expectation that police be identifiable while exercising coercive authority.
  • In August 2025, the Andhra Pradesh High Court questioned how citizens could recognise plainclothes personnel as police while they discharged official duties, in a case involving a YSRCP MLA accused of obstructing police work.

Why Police Avoid Identification

  • Security concerns: The practice reportedly originated in conflict zones like Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, and Chhattisgarh, where personnel avoided nameplates and rank insignia to reduce the risk of being targeted by militants.
  • Personal safety in routine duty: Officers argue visible identification can expose them to prolonged litigation, online harassment, and threats to their families.
  • Practice has spread: What began as a conflict-zone safeguard has gradually extended into routine law-and-order policing, a trend experts describe as contentious when applied outside genuine security threats.
  • Logistical compulsion: When additional personnel are urgently summoned to a protest site, all available officers from a unit — including those in plain clothes — are required to report, often due to overwhelming crowd size rather than deliberate strategy.

Acknowledged Ambiguity

  • While the law does not strictly bar deploying plainclothes personnel, senior officers concede the practice introduces ambiguity into already volatile protest situations. 
  • However, they argue such deployment remains important because anti-social elements can infiltrate protests and trigger violence or arson — special branch personnel are specifically tasked with blending into crowds to gather intelligence and monitor troublemakers.

Conclusion

  • The plainclothes policing debate captures a real tension between operational security concerns and democratic accountability. 
  • While Indian law does not explicitly bar unidentified policing, statutory logic and judicial precedent point toward identifiability as essential to the legitimate exercise of police power — making transparency, not anonymity, the constitutional default for routine law enforcement.

Source: IE | ToI

Plainclothes Policing FAQs

Q1: Is Plainclothes Policing legally permitted in India?

Ans: Plainclothes Policing is not expressly prohibited under Indian law, but routine policing generally requires identifiable officers while exercising statutory powers and coercive authority.

Q2: Why has Plainclothes Policing become controversial?

Ans: Plainclothes Policing has raised concerns because unidentified personnel during protests may reduce transparency, complicate accountability and undermine public confidence in law enforcement.

Q3: What judicial principles govern Plainclothes Policing in India?

Ans: Plainclothes Policing is influenced by judicial precedents such as DK Basu, which emphasise visible identification when police officers exercise coercive powers against citizens.

Q4: Why do police agencies deploy Plainclothes Policing?

Ans: Plainclothes Policing is used for intelligence gathering, identifying anti-social elements, ensuring operational security and responding quickly during large public gatherings or emergencies.

Q5: What constitutional concern does Plainclothes Policing highlight?

Ans: Plainclothes Policing highlights the need to balance operational security with transparency, accountability and citizens' ability to identify officers exercising public authority.

PM-YASASVI Scheme

July 23, 2026
PM-YASASVI Scheme

PM-YASASVI Scheme Latest News

Recently, the Minister of State for Social Justice and Empowerment informed the Lok Sabha about the PM-YASASVI Scheme.

About PM-YASASVI Scheme

  • The PM-YASASVI (Prime Minister Young Achievers Scholarship Award Scheme for Vibrant India) umbrella scheme. 
  • It is aimed at uplifting students from Other Backward Classes (OBC), Economically Backward Classes (EBC), and Denotified Tribes (DNT) by providing them with access to quality education during their formative years.
  • Objective: To reduce financial barriers and promote inclusive, equitable and quality education for eligible students from these communities.
  • Eligibility: Students from OBC, Economically Backward Classes (EBC), and DNT students with family income up to Rs 2.5 lakh per annum are eligible for this scheme.
  • It comprises four major scholarship components designed to support students at different stages of education.
  • These include the Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme, Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme, Top Class Education in Schools Scheme, and Top Class Education in Colleges Scheme for eligible students belonging to OBC, EBC and DNT communities.
  • Implementing by: Department of Social Justice and Empowerment, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.

Source: PIB

PM-YASASVI Scheme FAQs

Q1: PM-YASVI Scheme provides scholarships to students belonging to which groups?

Ans: OBC, EBC, DNT and Nomadic Tribes

Q2: PM-YASVI Scheme was launched in which year?

Ans: 2021

NSE Ahimsa Index: India’s New Benchmark for Ethical and Animal Welfare Investing

July 23, 2026
NSE Ahimsa Index

NSE Ahimsa Index Latest News

  • The National Stock Exchange (NSE) launched the Nifty 500 Ahimsa Index on July 10, 2026. 
  • This is India's first thematic index focused exclusively on animal cruelty-free companies, arriving weeks after BSE's similar Saatvik 100 Index launched on June 17, 2026.

National Stock Exchange: Structure, Role and Regulatory Framework

  • The National Stock Exchange (NSE) is India's premier stock exchange and a core pillar of the country's financial system. 
  • Established in 1992 and operational from 1994, it was set up to bring transparency, efficiency, and nationwide access to securities trading. 
  • Headquartered in Mumbai, NSE replaced India's earlier manual trading system with a fully automated, screen-based platform.

Legal Status and Recognition

  • NSE is a regulated stock exchange, officially recognised under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956. 
  • It offers trading across multiple asset classes:
    • Equities (shares)
    • Derivatives (futures and options)
    • Currency and commodity products
    • Debt securities
  • It is owned by major financial institutions, banks, and insurers, and operates under the regulatory oversight of the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).

Organisational Structure

  • Ownership - Key shareholders include major public institutions such as LIC, SBI, ICICI Bank, and GIC.
  • Management - NSE is run by a Board of Directors, supported by executive leadership and functional departments covering trading, clearing, settlement, and surveillance.
  • Regulatory Oversight - SEBI regulates NSE under multiple statutes, including the Companies Act, the SEBI Act, the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, and the Depositories Act.
  • Clearing, Settlement and Depository Services - Clearing and settlement functions are handled by NSE Clearing Limited; Depository services are provided through the National Securities Depository Limited (NSDL).

Governing Legal Framework

  • NSE's functioning is governed by four key legislations:
    • Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956
    • Companies Act, 2013
    • SEBI Act, 1992
    • Depositories Act, 1996

About Ahimsa Index

  • The Nifty 500 Ahimsa Index tracks top 500 NSE companies whose business practices align with the principle of "Ahimsa" (non-violence). 
  • It gives investors a way to invest specifically in companies that avoid activities harming animals. 
  • This marks a shift from conventional ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance) investing, which focuses on carbon emissions and governance metrics, toward a values-based screening rooted in Indian philosophical traditions.
  • The index was developed jointly by NSE Indices and the Ahimsagain Foundation, a non-profit established in November 2024 by ethical finance advocates.

Selection Framework

  • Companies are evaluated using the Ahimsa Investment Movement (AIM) framework, which classifies firms into three bands:
    • Green band: Fully compliant with animal-cruelty-free criteria
    • Orange band: Partial compliance
    • Red band: Non-compliant
  • Only green-band companies are included in the index.

Who Is Included and Excluded

  • The index includes leading companies from IT services, automobile, real estate, and healthcare sectors.
  • Notable exclusions include:
    • Most Reliance Group companies (except Reliance Power)
    • Pharmaceutical companies using animal testing
    • All commercial banks and major NBFCs
    • Dairy, meat, poultry, and leather companies
    • Fashion brands, retail chains, and cosmetics companies using leather or wool

Comparison with BSE's Saatvik Index

  • BSE's Saatvik 100 Index, launched earlier, has a broader mandate. It screens against animal cruelty, addictive or toxic products, and generally harmful or violent business activities. 
  • The near-simultaneous launch of two thematic ethical indices by India's major exchanges signals a new direction in India's capital markets — screening companies through indigenous philosophical lenses rather than only global ESG frameworks.
    • Global ESG frameworks are structured guidelines that help companies measure and report their performance on Environmental, Social, and Governance factors.
    • Environmental: Tracks a company's impact on nature, including greenhouse gas emissions, waste management, energy efficiency, and water use.
    • Social: Evaluates how a company treats people, covering labor practices, workplace health and safety, diversity, and community relations.
    • Governance: Assesses corporate leadership, executive pay, business ethics, internal controls, and shareholder rights.

Significance for Investors

  • Expected to serve as a benchmark for asset managers.
  • Likely to enable new passive investment products such as ETFs and index funds.
  • Reflects a broader trend of younger, values-conscious investors entering capital markets.
  • Market analysts note it will take time for mutual funds to build products around this theme, but see long-term growth potential.

Conclusion

  • NSE's Ahimsa Index reflects a maturing Indian capital market willing to root ethical investing in home-grown philosophical concepts rather than borrowed frameworks. 
  • As younger, values-driven investors enter the market, such indices could reshape how corporate responsibility is measured and rewarded in India.

Source: IE | ToI

NSE Ahimsa Index FAQs

Q1: What is the objective of the NSE Ahimsa Index?

Ans: The NSE Ahimsa Index enables investors to invest in companies that follow animal cruelty-free business practices while promoting values-based investing rooted in the principle of Ahimsa.

Q2: How does the NSE Ahimsa Index differ from conventional ESG investing?

Ans: The NSE Ahimsa Index goes beyond environmental and governance metrics by specifically screening companies based on animal welfare and non-violent business practices.

Q3: Which companies are excluded from the NSE Ahimsa Index?

Ans: The NSE Ahimsa Index excludes companies engaged in animal testing, leather, meat, poultry, dairy, and other businesses that do not satisfy its animal welfare criteria.

Q4: How are companies selected for the NSE Ahimsa Index?

Ans: The NSE Ahimsa Index uses the Ahimsa Investment Movement framework, admitting only companies placed in the "Green" category for compliance with animal welfare standards.

Q5: Why is the NSE Ahimsa Index significant for India's capital markets?

Ans: The NSE Ahimsa Index reflects the growing demand for ethical investing, encourages responsible corporate behaviour and expands values-based investment opportunities for Indian investors.

Methane

July 23, 2026
Methane

Methane Latest News

A new study in NatureFood has found that India’s rice fields now rank among world’s top methane hotspots. 

About Methane

  • It is a hydrocarbon that is a primary component of natural gas. 
  • It is a potent greenhouse gas, responsible for about 30% of the global temperature rise since the Industrial Revolution.
  • It is the primary component of natural gas and a byproduct of fossil fuel exploration.
  • It is 86 times more efficient at trapping heat over a 20-year-period than carbon dioxide.
  • Major Sources: The three major anthropogenic sources of methane emissions are  agriculture, energy, and waste sectors.

Characteristics of Methane

  • It is a colourless, odourless, and highly flammable gas, also known as marsh gas.
  • It remains in the atmosphere for a shorter period — about 12 years — than carbon dioxide,
  • It traps far more heat in the near term, making it a key driver of short-term climate change, contributing 28 times more to global warming than carbon dioxide for every tonne.

Source: TH

Methane FAQs

Q1: Which gas is produced along with methane in landfills?

Ans: Carbon Dioxide - CO2

Q2: Which satellite launched for monitoring methane emissions globally?

Ans: MethaneSAT

Daily Editorial Analysis 23 July 2026

July 23, 2026
Daily-Editorial-Analysis

India Must Lead in Securing the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb

Context

  • The emerging threat of a Bab el-Mandeb Strait crisis, following tensions in the Strait of Hormuz, underscores the vulnerability of global maritime trade.
  • The Bab el-Mandeb Strait, linking the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden, is one of the world's most critical maritime chokepoints.
  • Any disruption could threaten nearly one-third of India's trade, making maritime security a strategic and economic priority.
  • India must therefore adopt a proactive, rules-based maritime strategy to secure vital sea lanes.

Understanding the Strategic Importance of Bab el-Mandeb

  • The Bab el-Mandeb Strait, situated between Yemen and the Horn of Africa, connects the Suez Canal with the Indian Ocean.
  • It is indispensable for trade between Asia, Europe, and Africa, facilitating the movement of energy supplies, container cargo, and commercial shipping.
  • Any blockage would force vessels to reroute around the Cape of Good Hope, increasing transit time, freight costs, and supply chain disruptions.
  • Following the Gaza conflict, the Houthis (Ansarallah) launched attacks on commercial vessels in the Red Sea, disrupting one of the world's busiest shipping routes.

Major Consequences

  • Around 40 commercial vessels were attacked.
  • Over 2,000 ships avoided the Suez Canal, opting for the Cape of Good Hope.
  • Freight charges and marine insurance premiums increased sharply.
  • Egypt suffered significant revenue losses from reduced Suez Canal traffic.
  • India's imports, exports, and supply chains experienced delays and higher logistics costs.
  • The crisis demonstrated how regional conflicts can quickly disrupt global trade and economic stability.

Why the Present Situation is More Dangerous?

  • The current geopolitical environment presents greater uncertainty than in 2024.
  • Iran's reported support for Houthi threats has increased regional tensions.
  • The United Nations Security Council remains divided, limiting prospects for coordinated action to uphold freedom of navigation.
  • The United States is increasingly focused on Iran, creating uncertainty about sustained Red Sea security operations.
  • China may continue protecting its shipping independently through bilateral arrangements rather than collective maritime efforts.

Implications for India

  • Economic Impact

    • Simultaneous disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz and Bab el-Mandeb could severely affect India's energy security, trade, supply chains, exports, and inflation by increasing transportation and insurance costs.

  • Impact on Indian Seafarers

    • India is one of the world's largest suppliers of merchant seafarers.
    • Restrictions on Red Sea operations would affect the employment, safety, and welfare of thousands of Indian sailors while disrupting maritime commerce.

India's Strategic Response

  • Build a Multilateral Maritime Task Force

    • India should establish a Trade Protection Task Force with France and Japan, both of which maintain naval bases in Djibouti.
    • The task force should escort commercial vessels, conduct coordinated patrols, deter attacks, and ensure uninterrupted maritime trade.

  • Strengthen Regional Diplomacy

    • India should deepen engagement with Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and other Red Sea littoral states that share an interest in protecting maritime commerce and regional stability.

  • Enhance Maritime Domain Awareness

    • The Information Fusion Centre–Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) should be leveraged for real-time intelligence sharing, monitoring shipping movements, and coordinating multinational naval operations.

  • Promote a Rules-Based Maritime Order

    • India should advocate adherence to UNCLOS, international maritime law, and freedom of navigation through joint rules of engagement and protection of commercial shipping.
    • This approach aligns with India's vision of Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) and its commitment to a free, open, and secure Indo-Pacific.

Remaining Challenges and the Way Forward

  • Challenges

  • India's response must address several constraints:
    • Escalating West Asian geopolitical tensions.
    • Lack of international consensus.
    • High costs of sustained naval deployment.
    • Balancing ties with Iran, Saudi Arabia, Israel, and Western partners.
    • Ensuring the safety of Indian seafarers during prolonged crises.

  • Way Forward

    • India should establish a multinational maritime security mechanism, strengthen naval interoperability with France and Japan, expand cooperation with Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
    • India should also enhance IFC-IOR capabilities, diversify trade routes, build resilient supply chains, increase strategic petroleum reserves, and champion a rules-based international order through sustained diplomatic and naval engagement.

Conclusion

  • The Bab el-Mandeb Strait has become a critical test of India's maritime strategy.
  • The Red Sea crisis demonstrated that disruptions at strategic chokepoints can have far-reaching economic and geopolitical consequences.
  • As a leading maritime power, India must combine naval capability, regional diplomacy, multilateral cooperation, and maritime domain awareness to secure vital sea lanes.
  • A proactive and cooperative approach will safeguard India's trade, strengthen regional stability, and reinforce its vision of SAGAR, ensuring that the Bab el-Mandeb does not become a Gate of Tears for global commerce.

India Must Lead in Securing the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb FAQs

Q1. Why is the Bab el-Mandeb Strait strategically important fo India?
Ans. The Bab el-Mandeb Strait is a vital maritime chokepoint through which nearly one-third of India's trade passes.

Q2. What was a major consequence of the 2023–24 Red Sea crisis?
Ans. The crisis disrupted global shipping, increased freight and insurance costs, and delayed India's trade.

Q3. Why is the present Bab el-Mandeb situation considered more dangerous?
Ans. It is more dangerous because of rising Iran–U.S. tensions, a divided UN Security Council, and uncertainty over international maritime security efforts.

Q4. What maritime initiative should India undertake to protect its trade?
Ans. India should establish a multinational Trade Protection Task Force with partners such as France and Japan to secure shipping routes.

Q5. How does the proposed maritime strategy support India's regional vision?
Ans. It strengthens India's SAGAR vision by promoting secure sea lanes, regional cooperation, and a rules-based maritime order.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 2026 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

El Nino, Meaning, Effect in India and World, Weather Conditions

July 23, 2026
El Nino

Why in News?

The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare recently reviewed the availability of fertilizers, seeds, monsoon progress, and El Niño conditions during its weekly review meeting. The Union Agriculture Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan stated that the Southwest Monsoon has covered the entire country, creating favourable conditions for Kharif crop sowing, and directed officials to continuously monitor agricultural activities in sensitive districts to ensure smooth progress of the cropping season.

What is El Nino?

El Nino is the warm phase of the ENSO which is one of the world's most important natural climate patterns. It develops when sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean become unusually warm, changing global wind systems and rainfall patterns. It normally occurs every two to seven years and lasting about nine to twelve months. Its effects depend on intensity, duration and interaction with other climate systems such as the Indian Ocean Dipole.

El Nino 2026

El Nino Weather conditions strengthened during 2026, with global agencies warning of widespread weather disruptions, higher temperatures and changing rainfall patterns.

  • WMO Forecast: The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) estimated an 80% probability of El Niño during June-August 2026, with the likelihood rising to 90% or more of continuing until at least November 2026.
  • Ocean Monitoring: Observations during late April to mid-May showed sea surface temperatures in the central-eastern equatorial Pacific approaching El Nino thresholds. Subsurface waters exceeded 6°C above average, providing a large heat reserve that continued warming the ocean surface.
  • Atmospheric Signals: The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) also shifted towards El Niño conditions, confirming weakening atmospheric circulation. Together with warmer ocean waters, these indicators showed that El Niño development was well underway during 2026.
  • NOAA Advisory: On 11 June 2026, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) officially issued an El Nino Advisory. It forecast a 63% probability of sea surface temperatures crossing 2°C above average, indicating the possibility of a very strong El Niño (Super El Nino).

El Nino Effects on India and World

El Nino influences rainfall, temperatures and weather systems worldwide, affecting agriculture, food security, public health, water resources and economic activity.

Effect on India

  • El Niño weakens the Southwest Monsoon by shifting the Walker Circulation eastward. During late June 2026, India's cumulative monsoon rainfall remained around 42% below normal, increasing drought risk, reducing reservoir levels and affecting agricultural production.
  • Reduced rainfall and prolonged heat increase temperatures above 45°C across many parts of India. Lower hydropower generation, combined with rising electricity demand exceeding 240 GW, places additional pressure on thermal power generation and electricity prices.
  • Nearly 45% of India's workforce depends on agriculture. Weak monsoon conditions reduce crop yields, raise food inflation, lower rural incomes, affect FMCG and automobile demand, and increase government spending on relief measures and food imports.

Global Impact

  • Rainfall Changes: El Niño generally brings heavier rainfall to southern South America, southern United States, the Horn of Africa and Central Asia, while causing drier conditions across Australia, Indonesia, Central America, northern South America, the Caribbean and parts of southern Asia.
  • Europe Heatwaves 2026: During June 2026, Europe experienced record-breaking heat, with temperatures reaching 43.8°C in France, 41.7°C in Germany, and 40.7°C in Hungary, causing severe stress on agriculture, infrastructure and public health.
  • Human Health Risks: Prolonged El Niño-driven heatwaves increase heat stress, dehydration and heat-related illnesses. WHO reported more than 1,300 excess deaths in Europe after 21 June 2026, while over 150 million people were affected by extreme heat conditions.
  • Agriculture and Food Security: Rising temperatures and changing rainfall reduce crop productivity across several regions. The 2026-27 El Niño is expected to affect agriculture in India, China, Australia, Brazil and Sub-Saharan Africa, increasing food security concerns and disrupting global agricultural markets.
  • Wildfires and Drought: El Niño raises drought risk in Australia, South-East Asia, southern Africa and Central America, while prolonged dry conditions increase the probability of forest fires, water shortages and ecosystem degradation across vulnerable regions.
  • Flood and Disaster Risk: While some regions become drier, East Africa, parts of Central and East Asia, and large areas of North and South America are expected to receive above-normal rainfall, increasing the risk of floods, landslides, soil erosion and waterlogging.
  • Urban Heat Stress: El Niño intensifies the urban heat island effect, where cities remain much hotter than surrounding areas. Warm nights prevent the human body from recovering, increasing health risks, especially for elderly people, children, outdoor workers and those with chronic illnesses.
  • Water Resource Pressure: Reduced rainfall and prolonged drought lower reservoir levels and groundwater recharge in many regions, increasing competition for drinking water, irrigation and industrial use while raising the likelihood of water scarcity.
  • Marine Ecosystems: Warmer Pacific waters alter fish migration patterns, push cold-water species into deeper waters and encourage harmful algal blooms in some coastal regions, affecting fisheries, marine biodiversity and coastal livelihoods.
  • Compound Climate Disasters: WMO highlighted that El Niño can trigger multiple hazards simultaneously, including heatwaves, droughts, floods, storms and wildfires, creating cascading impacts on food systems, water availability, public health and national economies.

El Nino Formation

El Nino develops when the normal ocean-atmosphere system of the Pacific Ocean gets disturbed due to changes in wind patterns and heat distribution, leading to large-scale climatic impacts across the globe.

  • Weakening of Trade Winds: The easterly trade winds, which normally push warm water toward the western Pacific, lose strength or may even reverse direction.
  • Eastward Movement of Warm Water: Warm surface water accumulated near Asia and Australia starts flowing back toward the central and eastern Pacific Ocean.
  • Reduction in Upwelling: The usual rise of cold, nutrient-rich water along the western coast of South America decreases significantly, affecting ocean productivity.
  • Increase in Sea Surface Temperature (SST): The central and eastern Pacific Ocean experience abnormal warming, which is the core feature of El Nino.
  • Shift in Convection Zone: The region of rising warm air and cloud formation moves eastward, changing rainfall patterns across the Pacific.
  • Disturbance in Atmospheric Circulation: The Walker Circulation weakens or shifts, disrupting the balance between ocean and atmosphere.
  • Change in Pressure Systems: The pressure difference between the eastern and western Pacific reduces, influencing global wind systems.
  • Alteration of Jet Streams: The Pacific jet stream shifts its path, affecting weather patterns in different parts of the world.

Also Read: Primary Winds

El Nino and Indian Monsoon

El Nino has a strong and often negative impact on the Indian monsoon, which is crucial for agriculture, water supply, and the overall economy. When El Nino develops, the warming of the Pacific Ocean weakens the monsoon circulation over India, leading to reduced rainfall and increased chances of drought.

  • Weak Monsoon Winds: El Nino reduces the strength of southwest monsoon winds, leading to less moisture transport toward India.
  • Deficient Rainfall: Many regions experience below-normal rainfall, especially during strong El Nino years.
  • Increased Drought Risk: Lower rainfall increases the chances of drought, particularly in central and northwestern India.
  • Rise in Temperature: Reduced cloud cover and rainfall lead to higher temperatures and heatwave conditions.
  • Agricultural Impact: Crop yields decline due to insufficient water, affecting food production and farmer income.
  • Water Scarcity: Reservoir levels, groundwater, and rivers receive less recharge, causing water shortages.
  • Regional Variability: While most areas face deficit rainfall, some regions may still receive normal or even excess rain due to local factors.

Impacts of El Nino

El Nino significantly alters global weather systems by redistributing heat and moisture across the Pacific Ocean. This leads to widespread climatic disturbances such as floods, droughts, and temperature extremes in different parts of the world.
eastern Pacific Ocean.

  • Australia and Indonesia: Face severe drought conditions and increased risk of forest fires due to reduced rainfall.
  • North America: Southern regions (like California) may receive heavy rainfall, while northern areas experience warmer winters.
  • Asia: Countries like India may face weak monsoon and drought-like conditions, while Southeast Asia also sees reduced rainfall.
  • Africa: Eastern Africa often receives above-normal rainfall causing floods, while Southern Africa may experience drought.
  • Global Temperature Rise: El Nino years are generally warmer, contributing to short-term global warming spikes.
  • Marine Ecosystem Impact: Reduced upwelling affects fish populations, especially along the South American coast.
  • Coral Bleaching: Warmer ocean temperatures lead to widespread coral bleaching events in tropical oceans.
  • Cyclone/Hurricane Patterns: Decreases Atlantic hurricanes but may increase cyclone activity in the Pacific.
  • Agriculture Impact: Crop yields decline in drought-affected regions, while floods damage crops elsewhere.
  • Water Resources: Causes water scarcity in some regions and excess water in others, disrupting supply systems.
  • Economic Losses: Leads to global economic impacts due to damage to agriculture, fisheries, and infrastructure.

El Nino Management

Early monitoring, climate planning and resilient infrastructure help governments reduce the economic and humanitarian impacts of El Nino.

  • Early Warning Systems: WMO issues global El Niño/ La Niña Updates, seasonal climate forecasts and regional outlooks to support governments, humanitarian agencies and sectors such as agriculture, water management, health and energy in timely decision-making.
  • Scientific Monitoring: Continuous monitoring through ONI, RONI, SOI, satellite observations, ocean buoys and atmospheric measurements enables earlier detection of changing Pacific Ocean conditions and improves forecast accuracy.
  • Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Promoting millets, pulses and oilseeds, expanding drip irrigation, using AI-based weather advisories and developing drought-tolerant crop varieties improve agricultural resilience against weak monsoon conditions.
  • Water and Urban Management: Rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, restoration of wetlands, canal-top solar projects, efficient reservoir management and urban "cool roof" programmes help reduce water shortages and heat stress.
  • International Coordination: Organizations including WMO, NOAA, IMD, IITM, ECMWF, IRI and regional climate forums regularly share forecasts, technical expertise and humanitarian guidance for coordinated preparedness across countries.

Also Check: Difference Between El Nino and La Nina

El Nino FAQs

Q1: What is El Nino?

Ans: El Nino is a climate phenomenon in which the central and eastern Pacific Ocean becomes warmer than normal, affecting global weather patterns.

Q2: What causes El Nino?

Ans: It is mainly caused by the weakening or reversal of trade winds, which allows warm water to move eastward across the Pacific Ocean.

Q3: How often does El Nino occur?

Ans: El Nino typically occurs every 2 to 7 years as part of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.

Q4: What is the difference between El Nino and La Nina?

Ans: El Nino involves warming of Pacific waters, while La Niña involves cooling, leading to opposite weather effects.

Q5: How does El Nino affect India?

Ans: It usually weakens the monsoon, leading to less rainfall, drought conditions, and higher temperatures.

Enquire Now