Current Affairs of 11 September 2026 by Vajiram & Ravi IAS Institute

UPSC Daily Quiz 11 September 2026

September 11, 2026

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UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Folk Arts of Uttarakhand, Types, Features & Significance

September 11, 2026

Folk Arts of Uttarakhand reflect the state's rich cultural heritage, religious traditions, local beliefs and close relationship with nature. The art forms have developed over generations and are closely connected with festivals, worship, marriage ceremonies, agriculture and everyday life.

Uttarakhand has two major cultural regions, Kumaon and Garhwal, and both have their own distinctive artistic traditions. These include Aipan, Garhwali painting, murals, wood carving, decorative art and traditional crafts.

Major Folk Arts of Uttarakhand

Folk Arts of Uttarakhand reflect the state's rich cultural traditions, religious beliefs and close relationship with nature. Major folk arts of both Kumaon and Garhwal regions have been discussed below.

1. Aipan Art

Aipan is a famous ritualistic folk art mainly associated with the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.
It is traditionally created on floors, walls and wooden platforms during festivals, weddings and religious ceremonies.
The base is prepared using geru, a red ochre soil or mud.
Bisvar, a white paste made from cooked and ground rice, is used to draw designs over the red background.
Traditional designs include geometric patterns, dots, lines and religious symbols.
Saraswati Chowki is associated with the beginning of a child's formal education.
Nav Durga Chowki is associated with the worship of the nine forms of Goddess Durga.
Shivarchan Peeth is created during the worship of Lord Shiva.
Aipan is traditionally considered auspicious and is believed to bring good fortune and purify the ritual space.

2. Garhwal Painting

Garhwal Painting is associated with the Garhwal region and forms an important part of its traditional artistic heritage.
It is strongly influenced by religious and mythological themes.
Common subjects include Lord Krishna, Radha, Hindu gods and goddesses, and stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Paintings may also depict local landscapes, people and cultural traditions.
The Himalayan environment has influenced the use of nature-based themes and motifs.
The tradition reflects the connection between religion, local culture and artistic expression in Garhwal.
It is also associated with the broader Garhwal school of painting.

3. Kumaoni Painting

Kumaoni Painting represents the traditional artistic traditions of the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.
It commonly uses geometric, floral and religious motifs.
Designs may include flowers, leaves, birds, animals and other elements inspired by nature.
Religious symbols are often used to give the artwork cultural and spiritual meaning.
Traditional designs have been used for household decoration, ritual spaces and cultural occasions.
Contemporary artists have also adapted these traditional motifs for paintings, handicrafts and decorative products.

Also Read:- Festivals of Uttarakhand

4. Likhai Art

Likhai is a traditional form of wood carving associated with the Himalayan cultural traditions of Uttarakhand.
It is particularly visible in the decoration of traditional wooden houses and religious structures.
Skilled artisans carve detailed patterns on doors, windows, frames, pillars and other wooden elements.
Common motifs include flowers, leaves, geometric patterns, animals and religious symbols.
The art combines functional architecture with decorative craftsmanship.
Traditional Likhai demonstrates the specialised woodworking skills and knowledge passed down through generations.

5. Traditional Wood Carving

Wood carving is an important traditional craft found in different parts of Uttarakhand, particularly in Kumaon and Garhwal.
Wood has historically been an important material in the construction and decoration of traditional Himalayan houses and temples.
Artisans create intricate designs on doors, windows, balconies, pillars and frames.
Floral patterns, geometric designs, animals and religious motifs are commonly used.
Many traditional buildings combine architectural function with artistic decoration.
Wood carving also reflects the influence of the local Himalayan environment and the availability of wood as a traditional material.

6. Traditional Wall Paintings and Murals

Wall paintings and murals are another part of the traditional artistic heritage of Uttarakhand.
They are often created on house walls, religious spaces and other important places during festivals and ceremonies.
Designs may include flowers, geometric patterns, animals, birds and religious symbols.
Some paintings are connected with weddings, festivals and other auspicious occasions.
These traditions show how folk art was traditionally incorporated into everyday life and community celebrations.
Wall art also reflects the religious beliefs and natural surroundings of local communities.

7. Decorative Folk Art

Traditional decorative folk art is used to make homes and ritual spaces more attractive and auspicious.
It includes floral designs, geometric patterns, religious symbols and nature-inspired motifs.
Such designs are commonly associated with festivals, weddings and religious ceremonies.
Many decorative traditions are created using locally available materials.
Women have traditionally played an important role in maintaining these household and ritual art practices.
These art forms help preserve local customs, symbolism and community traditions.

8. Textile and Embroidery Art

Traditional textile and embroidery work is also an important part of the cultural heritage of Uttarakhand.
Local artisans use traditional designs and motifs to decorate clothes, shawls, bags and other textile products.
Geometric patterns, floral designs and motifs inspired by nature are commonly used.
Traditional textile work reflects the local lifestyle, environment and cultural identity of Himalayan communities.

Also Read:- Tribes of Uttarakhand

Folk Arts of Uttarakhand Significance

Folk Arts of Uttarakhand are significant because they preserve the state's cultural identity, traditional knowledge, religious beliefs and local craftsmanship. They also reflect the close relationship between the people of Uttarakhand, their Himalayan environment and community traditions.

Preservation of Cultural Heritage: Folk arts help preserve the traditional customs, beliefs, symbols and artistic practices of Uttarakhand for future generations.
Regional Identity: Different art forms represent the cultural identity of the Kumaon and Garhwal regions, highlighting their distinct traditions and practices.
Religious Significance: Art forms such as Aipan are closely connected with puja, festivals, weddings and other religious ceremonies.
Intergenerational Knowledge: Traditional techniques, designs and symbols are often passed from older generations to younger generations, helping preserve indigenous knowledge.
Role of Women: Women have traditionally played an important role in creating and preserving several folk-art traditions, particularly ritual and household decorative arts.
Connection with Nature: Many traditional designs feature flowers, leaves, birds, animals, mountains and other natural elements, reflecting the close relationship between Himalayan communities and nature.
Support for Artisans: Traditional arts and crafts provide livelihood opportunities for local artisans and craft communities, especially in rural areas.
Promotion of Tourism: Folk arts can promote cultural tourism by giving visitors an opportunity to understand the traditions, lifestyle and artistic heritage of Uttarakhand.

Folk Arts of Uttarakhand FAQs

Q1: What are the major Folk Arts of Uttarakhand?

Ans: Major Folk Arts of Uttarakhand include Aipan, Garhwal painting, Kumaoni painting, Likhai, traditional wood carving, wall paintings and textile art.

Q2: What is the most famous folk art of Uttarakhand?

Ans: Aipan art is one of the most famous traditional folk arts of Uttarakhand. It is mainly associated with the Kumaon region and is used during religious and auspicious occasions.

Q3: Which region is Aipan art associated with?

Ans: Aipan art is mainly associated with the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.

Q4: What materials are used in Aipan art?

Ans: Traditional Aipan uses geru, a red ochre base, and bisvar, a white paste made from cooked and ground rice.

Q5: What is Garhwal painting?

Ans: Garhwal painting is a traditional painting tradition associated with the Garhwal region. It commonly depicts religious, mythological and cultural themes.

Parthasarathi Shome Committee (Tax Administration Reform Commission)

September 11, 2026

The Tax Administration Reform Commission (TARC), popularly known as the Parthasarathi Shome Committee, was constituted by the Government of India in 2013 to examine the country's tax administration system and suggest reforms. The commission focused on improving the efficiency, effectiveness, transparency and taxpayer-friendliness of tax administration while bringing it closer to global best practices.

The commission was headed by Dr. Parthasarathi Shome and functioned as an advisory body. It examined issues related to tax policy, taxpayer services, human resource management, technology, dispute resolution, tax governance and compliance management.

What is the Tax Administration Reform Commission?

Tax Administration Reform Commission (TARC) was established through a Government of India notification in August 2013. Its formation had been announced by the then Finance Minister during the Budget session of Parliament.

The primary mandate of TARC was to:

Review the application of tax laws and tax policies in India.
Examine Indian tax administration in comparison with global best practices.
Identify structural and administrative weaknesses.
Suggest measures to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of tax administration.
Improve taxpayer services and voluntary compliance.
Strengthen the use of information and communication technology (ICT).
Improve tax governance, human resource management and dispute resolution.

Parthasarathi Shome Committee Objectives

Parthasarathi Shome Committee aimed to reform India’s tax administration by making it more efficient, transparent, taxpayer-friendly and aligned with global best practices.

Improve tax administration and make it more efficient and effective.
Strengthen taxpayer services and facilitate easier tax compliance.
Reduce tax disputes and litigation through better dispute-resolution mechanisms.
Promote voluntary tax compliance and expand the tax base.
Increase the use of technology and ICT in tax administration.
Strengthen human resource management and professional specialisation.
Improve coordination between CBDT and CBEC/CBIC.
Promote research-based tax policy formulation and impact assessment.
Improve transparency, accountability and governance in tax administration.
Strengthen systems for revenue forecasting and tax collection.

Major Observations of Parthasarathi Shome Committee

Parthasarathi Shome Committee identified several structural, administrative and technological weaknesses in India’s tax administration that affected efficiency, compliance, revenue collection and taxpayer services.

Lack of coordination: There was inadequate coordination between the CBDT and CBEC, resulting in fragmented tax administration.
Role of Revenue Secretary: The committee observed concerns regarding the position of the Revenue Secretary in the tax administration structure, particularly as the post did not necessarily require specialised tax expertise.
High tax litigation: A large number of tax disputes and pending cases placed a significant burden on the tax system.
Low recovery of tax arrears: The committee noted the poor recovery rate of outstanding tax arrears, indicating weaknesses in tax collection and enforcement.
Seniority-based appointments: Appointments to senior positions in tax administration were largely influenced by seniority rather than specialised knowledge and expertise.
Revenue target pressure: Tax officials faced pressure to meet externally imposed revenue targets, which could affect the quality of tax administration.
Underutilisation of technology: The potential of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) was not being fully utilised for improving tax administration and taxpayer services.
Weak research capacity: There was inadequate research-based analysis and impact assessment to support tax policy formulation.
Vigilance concerns: The committee highlighted the issue of anonymous vigilance complaints against tax officials and the need for a more effective mechanism to handle such complaints.
Need for taxpayer-centric administration: The existing system required greater focus on taxpayer services, voluntary compliance, transparency and ease of compliance.

Parthasarathi Shome Committee Major Recommendations

Parthasarathi Shome Committee proposed wide-ranging reforms to make tax administration more efficient, transparent, technology-driven and taxpayer-centric.

Taxpayer services: Create a separate taxpayer services vertical under CBDT and CBIC and allocate at least 10% of the tax administration budget to taxpayer services.
Pre-filled returns: Provide pre-filled tax returns to simplify tax compliance and reduce errors.
Human resource specialisation: Promote specialisation among IRS officers and allow lateral entry of experts into tax administration.
Tax administration structure: Recommend abolishing the post of Revenue Secretary and assigning relevant functions to the tax boards.
Tax Council: Establish a Tax Council for making recommendations on tax policy.
Governing Council: Create a Governing Council to oversee the functioning of the tax boards.
Integration of tax boards: Recommend greater integration, including complete integration of CBDT and CBEC, to improve coordination.
Dispute resolution: Establish dedicated dispute-resolution mechanisms and introduce pre-dispute consultation before issuing tax demand notices.
Retrospective taxation: Avoid retrospective amendments to tax laws to provide greater certainty to taxpayers.
PAN as CBIN: Develop PAN into a Common Business Identification Number (CBIN) for wider use across government departments.
GAAR: Recommend a three-year deferment of GAAR to allow adequate preparation for its implementation.
Technology and ICT: Promote greater use of ICT and digital systems to improve tax administration and taxpayer services.

Parthasarathi Shome Committee FAQs

Q1: What is the Parthasarathi Shome Committee?

Ans: The Parthasarathi Shome Committee refers to the Tax Administration Reform Commission (TARC), established in 2013 to review India’s tax administration and recommend reforms.

Q2: Who was the chairman of the Parthasarathi Shome Committee?

Ans: Dr. Parthasarathi Shome was the chairman of the Tax Administration Reform Commission.

Q3: What was the main objective of the Parthasarathi Shome Committee?

Ans: The main objective was to make tax administration more efficient, transparent, taxpayer-friendly and aligned with global best practices.

Q4: How many recommendations did TARC make?

Ans: The Tax Administration Reform Commission made 385 recommendations covering various aspects of tax administration.

Q5: What did the committee recommend for taxpayer services?

Ans: It recommended a separate taxpayer services vertical under the tax boards and suggested allocating at least 10% of the tax administration budget to taxpayer services.

International Day for South-South Cooperation 2026

September 11, 2026

International Day for South-South Cooperation 2026 highlights the importance of cooperation and shared learning among developing countries. It recognises how countries of the Global South can work together by exchanging knowledge, technology, skills and practical solutions to address common development challenges. The day also promotes stronger partnerships for inclusive growth, sustainable development and the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

International Day for South-South Cooperation 2026 Date and Theme

International Day for South-South Cooperation 2026 will be observed on 11 September 2026. The day highlights the importance of cooperation, knowledge sharing and mutual support among developing countries of the Global South.
The 2026 theme is “Solidarity Rising: Global Alliance for Inclusive and Innovative Development.” It focuses on using shared knowledge, innovation and partnerships to address common development challenges and create more inclusive growth.
The 2026 observance will also mark the launch of the Global Alliance for South-South and Triangular Cooperation, a voluntary, UN-facilitated platform convened by the United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC).
The Alliance aims to connect countries looking for solutions with partners that can provide expertise, technology, knowledge, resources and technical support, helping successful ideas reach more countries.
The theme reflects the growing role of South-South and triangular cooperation in areas such as renewable energy, digital technology, healthcare, sustainable agriculture, education, disaster management and public services.

Role of South-South Cooperation in Global Development

Sharing knowledge and expertise: South-South cooperation allows developing countries to exchange practical knowledge, technical skills and successful experiences that can be adapted to their own development needs.
Supporting sustainable development: Countries can work together on issues such as climate change, food security, healthcare, digital development and energy access, helping them make progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Building stronger national capacities: Cooperation helps countries improve institutions, develop technical skills and strengthen their ability to design and implement development programmes according to their own priorities.
Promoting innovation and technology: Developing countries can share affordable technologies and locally developed solutions, allowing other countries to adapt proven innovations instead of starting from scratch.
Strengthening economic cooperation: Growing South-South trade and investment are creating stronger economic links among developing countries and increasing their role in global trade and development.
Supporting triangular cooperation: Triangular cooperation brings together developing countries with developed countries or international organisations. It combines Southern experience and ownership with additional technical, financial or institutional support.
Encouraging collective solutions: Many challenges faced by developing countries are interconnected and cannot be addressed by one country alone. South-South cooperation creates opportunities for countries to work together on shared problems.

Significance of South-South Cooperation

Promotes self-reliance: South-South cooperation helps developing countries use their own knowledge, skills and resources to address development challenges while reducing dependence on a single external source of support.
Encourages mutual learning: Countries with similar social, economic and environmental conditions can learn from each other's experiences and adapt successful policies and programmes to their own circumstances.
Helps scale proven solutions: Many useful innovations already exist in developing countries but remain limited to specific regions. Cooperation can help these solutions reach more communities and countries.
Strengthens international solidarity: It promotes partnerships based on equality, mutual benefit, national ownership and respect for sovereignty, making cooperation more inclusive and country-driven.
Supports vulnerable countries: South-South cooperation can provide valuable support to Least Developed Countries (LDCs), Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS), particularly in areas such as climate resilience, disaster management and capacity building.
Creates wider development partnerships: It brings governments, UN organisations, financial institutions, academia, civil society and the private sector together to share resources, expertise and innovative ideas.
Contributes to the SDGs: By strengthening capacities, sharing technology and mobilising partnerships, South-South cooperation can help countries accelerate progress towards their national development priorities and the 2030 Agenda.

International Day for South-South Cooperation 2026 FAQs

Q1: When is International Day for South-South Cooperation 2026 observed?

Ans: International Day for South-South Cooperation 2026 will be observed on 11 September 2026.

Q2: What is the theme of International Day for South-South Cooperation 2026?

Ans: The 2026 theme is “Solidarity Rising: Global Alliance for Inclusive and Innovative Development.”

Q3: What is South-South Cooperation?

Ans: South-South Cooperation is a form of partnership in which developing countries share knowledge, skills, technology, resources and development experiences to address common challenges.

Q4: What is the significance of South-South Cooperation?

Ans: It promotes mutual learning, self-reliance, innovation and international solidarity among developing countries and supports their development priorities.

Q5: How does South-South Cooperation support global development?

Ans: It helps countries address common challenges such as climate change, healthcare, food security, digital development, energy access and disaster management through shared solutions.

Folk Arts of Andhra Pradesh, Dances, Crafts, Significance

September 11, 2026

The Folk Arts of Andhra Pradesh include shadow puppetry, oral storytelling, folk theatre, devotional dances and tribal performances. Many of these forms are closely linked with epics, village festivals, religious rituals and community life.

Major Folk Arts of Andhra Pradesh

The major folk arts of Andhra Pradesh can be understood through their distinctive performance techniques, communities and occasions of performance.

Folk Puppetry and Storytelling

Andhra Pradesh has a strong tradition of combining visual performance with oral narration, particularly through puppetry and village storytelling.

Tholu Bommalata: Tholu Bommalata is a traditional leather shadow-puppet theatre of Andhra Pradesh. Large, coloured leather puppets are placed behind a white screen and illuminated from behind, allowing the audience to see their shadows. The stories are mainly drawn from the Ramayana, with episodes from the Mahabharata and Vaishnava traditions also performed. The form combines puppetry, painting, music, acting and storytelling. Nimmalakunta in Anantapur districtis an important centre of the leather-puppetry tradition.
Burra Katha: Burra Katha is a traditional oral storytelling form performed by a small troupe. A main storyteller narrates the story while two accompanying performers support the narration through songs, dialogue and rhythm. Stories may draw from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and other religious traditions, but the form has also been used to communicate social issues and contemporary messages.
Jamukula Pata: Jamukula Pata is a village-based folk singing and storytelling tradition traditionally performed by three artists. One acts as the main singer or Patakudu, while the other two provide the chorus. The form has historically been associated with rural and socially marginalised communities.
Pagati Veshalu: Pagati Veshalu is a daytime folk theatre in which performers take on different characters and use satire to comment on society, professions and social behaviour. It is also known as Bahurupalu, referring to the assumption of many roles. Its emphasis on disguise and social satire makes it an important form of Telugu folk theatre.

Folk and Devotional Dances

The dance traditions of Andhra Pradesh range from rhythmic group dances to highly devotional and physically demanding performances.

Dappu Nrityam: Dappu Nrityam derives its name from the Dappu, a circular frame drum traditionally made with a wooden frame and animal skin. Dancers use sticks to beat the drum while performing with ankle bells. The dance is commonly seen in religious processions, festivals, village fairs, marriages and other ceremonies. Its energetic rhythm is a distinctive feature of Telugu rural performance traditions.
Veeranatyam: Veeranatyam, or the “Dance of the Brave,” is an ancient Shaivite devotional dance of Andhra Pradesh. It originated as a ritual performed in honour of Lord Shiva and is particularly associated with devotees of Veerabhadra and the Veeramusti community. The Veeranam, a war drum, provides an important musical accompaniment.
Tappeta Gullu: Tappeta Gullu is a vigorous devotional dance performed mainly by men, particularly in the north coastal districts of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam. Traditionally associated with shepherd and cowherd communities, it was performed to propitiate Gangamma, the rain goddess. Dancers wear ankle bells and carry a small drum known as Tappeta or Gundlu on the chest. Group performances combine powerful movements, drumming and acrobatics.
Kolattam: Kolattam, also called Kolkollannalu or Kollannalu, is a group dance performed with wooden sticks. Dancers form pairs and strike their sticks against those of other dancers in a coordinated rhythm. It is traditionally performed mainly by women, while men may provide musical accompaniment.
Lambadi: Lambadi is a folk dance associated with the Banjara/Lambadi community. Women are prominent performers and traditionally wear colourful costumes decorated with mirrors, embroidery and ornaments. The dance reflects aspects of community life, including agricultural activities such as sowing, planting and harvesting.
Garagallu: Garagallu is a distinctive dance in which performers balance a decorated Garaga, usually a brass pot, on their heads. The pot is decorated with turmeric, kumkum and colourful cloth and symbolises the Mother Goddess. The dance is performed during religious celebrations and special occasions, including marriages.
Puliveshalu: Puliveshalu, also called Pulivesham, is the Tiger Dance of Andhra Pradesh. Performers paint their bodies with tiger-like stripes and may wear tiger masks. The open-air performance is associated with festivals such as Dussehra and Muharram and with local deity festivals in parts of north coastal Andhra.
Mahankali Dance: Mahankali Dance is a devotional performance associated with the worship of Goddess Mahankali, Kali or Durga. Performers traditionally apply turmeric and kumkum, carry decorated pots and use neem leaves. The dance is performed during Dussehra and other local festivals.

Tribal Folk Arts

The tribal traditions of Andhra Pradesh are particularly associated with collective dancing, distinctive costumes, drums and representations of the natural environment.

Kommu Koya: Kommu Koya is a traditional dance of the Koya community. Men and women perform together during festivals and community celebrations. Men may wear decorated headgear incorporating bison or cattle horns and peacock feathers, while drums provide the rhythmic accompaniment. The performance reflects the community's forest-based cultural life. Government tribal documentation also identifies Kommu among the tribal dance traditions of Andhra Pradesh.
Mayura or Peacock Dance: The Khond community performs the Mayura or Peacock Dance during weddings and festivals. Dancers imitate the movements of a peacock, using peacock feathers as part of their costume. The performance includes coordinated movements such as bending, circling and stepping and reflects the importance of nature in tribal cultural expression.
Dhimsa: Dhimsa is an important tribal dance tradition of Andhra Pradesh, particularly associated with tribal communities of the Visakhapatnam region. It is performed collectively during festivals and community occasions. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has included Dhimsa among the tribal dances being documented and promoted in Andhra Pradesh.

Acrobatic and Character-Based Folk Dances

Some Andhra folk performances stand out because the performers use unusual props, artificial extensions or animal characters.

Dommarata: Dommarata is a historic folk dance involving both men and women. A distinctive feature is the use of wooden or bamboo poles, which performers balance on their shoulders while others climb and balance on them in rhythm with the dance. The performance requires considerable coordination and has also been adapted for stage presentations.
Maragallu: Maragallu is performed using artificial wooden legs that increase the height of the dancers. Performers wearing these extended legs execute coordinated movements during festivals and ceremonial occasions.
Keelu Gurralu: Keelu Gurralu means “wooden horses” in Telugu. The performance is particularly associated with the Yanadi community in parts of Andhra Pradesh. Performers wear wooden or cardboard horse structures around their bodies and imitate horse movements. The performance may include characters such as kings, queens and warriors.

Folk Arts and Festivals

Several Folk Arts of Andhra Pradesh are directly connected with religious and seasonal celebrations.

Sankranti and Gangireddu: Sankranti is an important harvest festival in Andhra Pradesh. A distinctive associated tradition is Gangireddu, in which performers take decorated bulls from house to house. The bulls are adorned with colourful cloth, flowers and decorations and are trained to respond to musical cues. The accompanying performer uses instruments such as the Nadaswaram and drums while presenting the decorated bull.
Tappeta Gullu and Village Festivals: Tappeta Gullu continues to be performed during village festivals in north coastal Andhra, retaining its association with devotional worship and community celebration.
Puliveshalu and Local Festivals: Puliveshalu is performed during festivals such as Dussehra and Muharram and during celebrations dedicated to local deities in parts of Andhra Pradesh.

Traditional Crafts and Material Arts of Andhra Pradesh

The folk heritage of Andhra Pradesh also finds expression in its traditional toys, puppets, textile arts and musical instruments, many of which are closely connected with local communities and cultural traditions.

Kondapalli Bommalu: These are lightweight wooden toys traditionally made at Kondapalli near Vijayawada. They are carved from Tella Poniki wood and depict mythological figures, animals and scenes from rural life. Kondapalli Bommalu received GI recognition in 2006.
Leather Puppetry: Leather puppetry is closely associated with Tholu Bommalata. Nimmalakunta is an important centre where artisans traditionally prepare leather puppets depicting characters from epics and religious stories.
Kalamkari: Andhra Pradesh is associated with two important Kalamkari traditions — Srikalahasthi Kalamkari and Machilipatnam Kalamkari. These textile-art traditions use hand-drawn and block-printed designs, respectively.
Bobbili Veena: The Bobbili Veena is a traditional Saraswati Veena made in Bobbili, Vizianagaram district. It is mainly crafted from jackwood and is known for its distinctive craftsmanship and tonal quality.

Folk Arts of Andhra Pradesh FAQs

Q1: What is Tholu Bommalata?

Ans: Tholu Bommalata is a leather shadow-puppet theatre tradition of Andhra Pradesh.

Q2: What is Burra Katha?

Ans: Burra Katha is a traditional oral storytelling form involving a main narrator and accompanying performers.

Q3: Which folk dance is associated with Gangamma?

Ans: Tappeta Gullu is traditionally associated with the worship of Gangamma.

Q4: What is Veeranatyam associated with?

Ans: Veeranatyam is associated with Lord Shiva and Veerabhadra.

Folk Arts of Karnataka, Traditions, Festivals, Crafts, Significance

September 11, 2026

Karnataka has a rich and diverse folk tradition shaped by its coastal, Malnad and northern regions. The Folk Arts of Karnataka preserve local beliefs, customs, stories and community traditions through distinctive forms of performance and craftsmanship.

Major Folk Arts of Karnataka

The major Folk Arts of Karnataka include dance, theatre, ritual performances, puppetry and traditional visual expressions.

Folk Dance and Performance

Karnataka’s folk dances are closely connected with festivals, temple traditions, community worship and local customs.

Dollu Kunitha: A vigorous drum dance associated with the Kuruba Gowda community and the worship of Beeralingeshwara, a form of Shiva; performers carry large drums and dance in synchronised formations.
Kamsale Nrutya: A devotional dance performed with kamsale, a pair of metallic cymbals, traditionally associated with devotees of Male Mahadeshwara.
Huli Vesha: A coastal folk performance in which performers paint or dress themselves as tigers, traditionally performed as an offering to Goddess Durga.
Veeragase: A vigorous Shaivite dance associated with Veerabhadra, performed during religious festivals and processions.
Kolata: A group dance performed with sticks, combining rhythmic movements with folk songs and music.

Folk Theatre and Storytelling

Folk theatre in Karnataka combines acting, music, dance, dialogue, costumes and storytelling.

Yakshagana: One of Karnataka’s best-known traditional forms, particularly associated with the coastal districts. It combines dance, music, song, dialogue and elaborate costumes to present stories mainly from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and local legends.
Gombe Aata: A traditional puppet theatre in which stories are presented through dolls or puppets controlled by performers, including through invisible strings.
Togalu Gombeyata: A form of leather shadow puppetry, in which coloured and perforated leather figures are used to project characters and scenes onto a screen.

Ritual and Community Arts

Several folk traditions combine artistic performance with worship, mythology and community beliefs.

Bhoota Kola: A ritual performance of coastal Karnataka, particularly Tulunadu, in which a trained performer embodies a local deity or bhoota and performs rituals, dance and oracular functions.
Nagamandala: A ritual associated with the worship of serpent spirits in Dakshina Kannada and surrounding areas. Performers known as Vaidyas dance around an elaborate serpent design created on the ground.
Bhoota Nritya: A traditional spirit or ancestral dance included among Karnataka’s regional folk-dance traditions.
Huttari Kolata: A traditional community performance associated with Kodagu, combining dance and ritual elements.

Traditional Visual and Craft Traditions

The folk tradition of Karnataka also extends to woodwork, toys and traditional visual arts.

Chitragari: Traditional artisans produce toys and other decorative objects, forming part of Karnataka’s continuing craft traditions.
Gudigara Craft: The Gudigars of the Malnad region are traditionally known for working with wood, particularly sandalwood, as well as other materials.
Traditional Sculpture: Vishvakarma artisans have traditionally worked in mediums such as bronze and stone, continuing Karnataka’s long association with sculpture.

Folk Music and Oral Traditions

Folk performance is supported by a rich musical and oral tradition.

Gamaka: A distinctive Karnataka tradition combining musical rendering with literary storytelling, particularly associated with the narration of classical Kannada literature.
Vachana Tradition: The devotional compositions of Basavanna and other Vachana poets form an important part of Karnataka’s literary and musical heritage.
Haridasa Tradition: Saints such as Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa composed devotional songs in Kannada, contributing significantly to Karnataka’s musical tradition.

Folk Arts of Karnataka Cultural Significance

The Folk Arts of Karnataka provide an important window into the state’s regional diversity and community traditions.

Living heritage: Forms such as Yakshagana, Dollu Kunitha and Bhoota Kola continue to be performed in their traditional settings.
Community identity: Many traditions are closely linked with particular communities, regions, festivals and religious practices.
Storytelling tradition: Folk theatre and puppetry preserve stories from epics, mythology and local legends.
Regional diversity: Coastal Karnataka, Malnad, Kodagu and northern Karnataka each have distinctive performance traditions.

Folk Arts of Karnataka FAQs

Q1: Which community is traditionally associated with Dollu Kunitha?

Ans: Dollu Kunitha is traditionally associated with the Kuruba Gowda community of Karnataka.

Q2: Which ritual performance of coastal Karnataka is associated with the worship of local deities and spirits?

Ans: Bhoota Kola is a ritual performance of coastal Karnataka associated with the worship of local deities and spirits.

Q3: Which traditional puppet theatre of Karnataka uses leather puppets for shadow play?

Ans: Togalu Gombeyata is the traditional leather shadow-puppet theatre of Karnataka.

Q4: Which ritual performance is associated with the worship of serpent spirits in Karnataka?

Ans: Nagamandala is a ritual performance of Karnataka associated with the worship and appeasement of serpent spirits.

Q5: Which folk theatre form of Karnataka combines dance, music, dialogue and storytelling?

Ans: Yakshagana is the folk theatre form of Karnataka that combines dance, music, dialogue and storytelling.

Folk Arts of Jharkhand, Traditions, Festivals, Crafts, Significance

September 11, 2026

The Folk Arts of Jharkhand reflect the close relationship between its communities, nature and everyday life. Rather than being limited to decorative art, these traditions are closely woven into festivals, marriage ceremonies, agricultural practices and community celebrations. They also preserve traditional knowledge, local materials and artistic skills passed down through generations.

Major Folk Arts of Jharkhand

The Folk Arts of Jharkhand take diverse forms, from paintings and dance traditions to music, metalwork, bamboo crafts. Some of the most distinctive traditions are described below.

Folk Paintings

Sohrai and Khovar: Sohrai and Khovar (also written as Kohvar) are two distinct wall-painting traditions of Jharkhand. Khovar/Kohvar is associated with marriage ceremonies and is traditionally painted in the bridal room, known as the Kohvar Ghar. Sohrai is associated with the post-harvest cattle festival, traditionally celebrated in winter. Women traditionally create these paintings using natural earth colours, with motifs of animals, birds, plants, fertility and geometric patterns. Sohrai-Khovar Painting is a registered Geographical Indication (GI) of Jharkhand.
Jadupatua: Jadupatua is a scroll-painting tradition associated with the Santhal cultural region. The painted scrolls were used by artists to narrate stories through a sequence of images, covering themes such as mythology, legends, social life and community traditions. The art therefore combines painting with storytelling rather than functioning simply as a decorative form. Jharkhand Jadupatua Paintings received GI registration in 2026.
Paitkar: Paitkar is the traditional scroll painting of Amadubi in East Singhbhum district. Its artists, known as Chitrakars, traditionally paint on paper and scrolls using natural colours. The subjects range from the Ramayana and Mahabharata to local legends, festivals, social life, flora and fauna. The tradition has faced difficulties in finding markets and wider recognition, although efforts have been made to revive it in Amadubi.

Folk Dances

Seraikela Chhau: Seraikela Chhau combines dance, martial movements and dramatic storytelling. Its themes draw from mythology, folklore and nature, while masks are used to represent characters and convey emotions through controlled body movements rather than facial expressions. It is one of the three recognised styles of Chhau, alongside Purulia Chhau of West Bengal and Mayurbhanj Chhau of Odisha. Seraikela and Purulia use masks, whereas Mayurbhanj is performed without masks. Chhau was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010.
Paika: Paika is a traditional martial folk dance associated with the Munda and Baraik (Nagpuri) communities of Jharkhand. Traditionally performed by men, it involves coordinated movements with swords and shields and is accompanied by instruments such as the Narsingha, Shehnai, Bheri, Dhak and Nagara.
Karma: Karma is closely connected with the Karam festival and combines singing, rhythmic movements and traditional instruments. Different regional forms are performed in Jharkhand, with the movement and rhythm changing according to local traditions.
Jhumur: Jhumur combines folk singing and dance and is performed during social occasions and festivals. Its rhythmic character and use of traditional drums have made it an important part of the folk culture of Jharkhand.
Domkach: Domkach is a wedding-related community dance associated particularly with the Nagpuri cultural region. Its participatory nature distinguishes it from performance traditions meant primarily for an audience.
Firkal: Firkal is a martial folk dance associated with the Bhumij tribe of Jharkhand. Its performance incorporates weapons such as swords, bows, arrows and shields, reflecting the martial traditions of the community.
Santhal Dance: Santhal men and women perform these dances collectively during festivals, weddings and other important community occasions. The dancers usually move in groups, accompanied by traditional instruments such as drums, flutes, pipes and cymbals. The performances are closely linked with Santhal community life and reflect its strong connection with nature.

Folk Music and Instruments

Music forms an important part of Jharkhand's dance and festival traditions. Traditional instruments include the Mandar, Nagara, Dhamsa, Dhak, Dhol, Bansuri, Shehnai, Bheri, Singha and Banam. The Mandar, a traditional drum, provides the rhythmic base for many folk performances, while the Banam is a distinctive stringed instrument associated with tribal musical traditions.

The GI Registry also records Jharkhand Benam (Musical Instrument) as a registered GI. While Banam is the commonly used name for the instrument in cultural literature, “Benam” is the spelling used in the official GI entry.

Folk Crafts

Dhokra: Dhokra is a traditional lost-wax metal-casting technique used to create figurines, animals, ritual objects and decorative items. The technique is practised across parts of eastern and central India, including Jharkhand.
Bamboo Craft: Bamboo is widely used by artisans to make baskets, mats, furniture, fishing equipment and household objects. Its importance lies not only in the finished products but also in the use of locally available natural material and traditional craftsmanship.
Tribal Jewellery: Jewellery forms an important part of the material culture of Jharkhand's tribal communities. Traditional ornaments made from metals and other locally available materials are worn during everyday life as well as festivals and ceremonies.

Festivals and Folk Arts of Jharkhand

Many Folk Arts of Jharkhand are best understood through the festivals in which they are practised.

Sohrai: Celebrated around the harvest season, Sohrai is closely associated with cattle and agriculture. The festival also provides the cultural setting for the famous Sohrai wall paintings.
Sarhul: Sarhul is a major spring festival in which nature occupies a central place. The Sal tree and its flowers have particular significance, reflecting the close relationship between tribal cultural practices and the forest environment.
Karma: The Karam festival is marked by singing and dancing and is associated with the Karam tree and the community's seasonal cycle.
Baha: Baha is a Santhal flower festival celebrated when new flowers, particularly Sal flowers, appear. The festival symbolises the renewal of life and the relationship between the community and nature.
Tusu: Tusu is a harvest festival associated with songs and community celebrations. It is particularly associated with young women and the seasonal agricultural cycle.

Folk Arts of Jharkhand Cultural Significance

The significance of the Folk Arts of Jharkhand goes beyond their artistic value.

They preserve traditional knowledge, community identity and links with the natural environment while providing livelihoods for artisans and performers.
They also offer opportunities for cultural tourism and the wider promotion of Jharkhand's heritage.

At the same time, traditions such as Paitkar painting face challenges from limited markets, changing lifestyles and weakening transmission of traditional skills. Recognition through GI or cultural institutions can help, but long-term preservation also depends on creating sustainable livelihoods for the communities that practise these traditions.

Folk Arts of Jharkhand FAQs

Q1: What are the major Folk Arts of Jharkhand?

Ans: Major Folk Arts of Jharkhand include Sohrai-Khovar painting, Jadupatua, Paitkar, Chhau, Paika, Karma, Jhumur, Domkach, Firkal, Dhokra and Bamboo Craft.

Q2: What is Sohrai-Khovar painting?

Ans: It is a traditional wall-painting tradition of Jharkhand, associated with harvest and marriage-related customs.

Q3: When was Chhau inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List?

Ans: Chhau was inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List in 2010.

Q4: What is Paika dance?

Ans: Paika is a martial folk dance traditionally performed by men using swords and shields.

Q5: What is Paitkar painting?

Ans: Paitkar is a traditional scroll-painting tradition of Amadubi in East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.

Sitakant Mohapatra Committee, Recommendations, Need, Status

September 11, 2026

The Sitakant Mohapatra Committee was constituted by the Government to evolve objective criteria for considering demands for the inclusion of additional languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. The issue remains relevant because India continues to receive demands for the inclusion of more languages, while no fixed criteria have been finalised for such inclusion.

About the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee

The Sitakant Mohapatra Committee was constituted by the Ministry of Home Affairs in September 2003 to examine the issue of language inclusion and evolve objective criteria.

It was officially constituted as the Committee of Linguistic Experts.
It was headed by Sitakant Mohapatra, an eminent Odia poet, scholar and former civil servant.
Its main task was to evolve objective criteria for considering demands for inclusion of additional languages in the Eighth Schedule.
The Committee submitted its report to the Government in 2004.

Earlier, the Government constituted the Pahwa Committee in 1996 to evolve criteria for inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule. Its recommendations did not result in a final framework, leading to the constitution of the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee in 2003 for a fresh attempt to develop objective criteria.

Sitakant Mohapatra Committee Need

The Sitakant Mohapatra Committee need arose from the absence of fixed constitutional criteria for adding languages to the Eighth Schedule.

The Eighth Schedule currently contains 22 languages and is linked to Articles 344(1) and 351 of the Constitution.
Article 344(1) deals with the composition of the Official Language Commission, while Article 351 relates to the promotion and development of Hindi.
The Constitution does not prescribe specific conditions that a language must satisfy for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule.

The Government therefore sought an objective basis for examining the growing demands for inclusion of additional languages.

Sitakant Mohapatra Committee Recommendations

The Sitakant Mohapatra Committee proposed a set of objective criteria for considering the inclusion of additional languages in the Eighth Schedule. The Government stated that the report was under consideration in consultation with the concerned departments of the Central Government, with no fixed time frame for deciding the demands. The specific criteria proposed by the Committee were not disclosed.

Why Did the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee Process Remain Inconclusive?

The process remained inconclusive because the criteria suggested by the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee faced widespread divergence of opinion among the concerned stakeholders. The Government subsequently examined the issue through further inter-ministerial consultations, but no objective criteria could be finalised. The difficulty was also compounded by the evolving nature of languages and dialects, making it challenging to establish a uniform and permanent basis for deciding inclusion in the Eighth Schedule.

Present Position on the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee

The Eighth Schedule currently contains 22 languages, and the Government continues to maintain that no fixed criteria have been laid down for inclusion of additional languages. In a 2026 parliamentary reply regarding the demand for inclusion of Gor Boli, the Government reiterated that such demands are considered in light of the evolving nature of languages and dialects, linguistic sentiments and other relevant considerations.

Sitakant Mohapatra Committee FAQs

Q1: What was the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee?

Ans: The Sitakant Mohapatra Committee was a Committee of Linguistic Experts constituted by the Ministry of Home Affairs to evolve objective criteria for considering demands for inclusion of additional languages in the Eighth Schedule.

Q2: Why was the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee needed?

Ans: The Committee was needed because the Constitution does not prescribe fixed criteria for including languages in the Eighth Schedule, creating a need for an objective basis to examine such demands.

Q3: When was the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee constituted?

Ans: The Sitakant Mohapatra Committee was constituted in September 2003 and submitted its report in 2004.

Q4: What did the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee recommend?

Ans: The Sitakant Mohapatra Committee proposed a set of objective criteria for considering language-inclusion demands. However, the Government has not publicly disclosed the specific criteria in its parliamentary replies.

Q5: What is the present status of the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee recommendations?

Ans: The recommendations of the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee have not resulted in a fixed framework for language inclusion. The Government continues to maintain that there are no fixed criteria for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule.

Mocha Port and the Red Sea Crisis, Impact, Latest News

September 11, 2026

Mocha Port and the Red Sea Crisis are in focus after Yemen’s Houthi forces seized the strategic port city of Mocha, strengthening their position near the Bab el-Mandeb Strait and raising concerns over regional security, global shipping and energy supplies.

About Mocha Port

Mocha is a historic port city on Yemen’s western coast along the Red Sea. Its location has given it both historical commercial importance and growing strategic importance in the current conflict.

Mocha is located roughly 80 km from the Bab el-Mandeb Strait.
Mocha was historically an important centre of the global coffee trade, and the name “mocha” became associated with coffee because Yemeni coffee was exported through the port.

The strategic importance of the area today, however, comes mainly from its location along Yemen’s western coast and its proximity to Bab el-Mandeb.

What Happened in Mocha?

The Houthis launched an offensive to capture Mocha, which was under the control of forces supporting Yemen’s internationally recognised government.
After heavy fighting, government forces withdrew from Mocha, and the Houthis captured the city on September 10, 2026. The Yemeni government described the withdrawal as a tactical move to regroup.
After the fall of Mocha, government forces moved south towards Dhubab, a coastal area closer to the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, while Houthi forces advanced towards the Hanish Islands in the Red Sea.

Thus, the fighting has moved from Mocha towards areas closer to Bab el-Mandeb, increasing concerns about the security of this major shipping route.

Mocha Port Capture What is the Red Sea Crisis?

The Red Sea crisis refers to the disruption of commercial shipping in the Red Sea and the wider regional tensions caused by Houthi attacks on vessels and the conflict in Yemen. The crisis has become more significant because the Bab el-Mandeb Strait connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and forms an important maritime link between Asia, Europe and the Middle East through the Suez Canal. The capture of Mocha and the Houthi advance along Yemen’s western coast have added a new security dimension to these existing concerns.

Impact of the Mocha Capture

The developments around Mocha have implications at multiple levels, from the security of international shipping and energy supplies to Yemen’s internal stability and regional security.

Impact on Global Shipping: Bab el-Mandeb is a critical route for ships carrying oil, fuel and other goods between Asia, Europe and the Middle East through the Suez Canal, and further Houthi advances could put this route under greater pressure.
Impact on Energy Security: The disruption of the Strait of Hormuz has made the Red Sea more important for Saudi oil exports, but the Houthi advance now puts this alternative route under pressure as well.
Impact on Yemen: The renewed fighting threatens the fragile calm created by the 2022 United Nations-brokered truce and raises the risk of Yemen returning to full-scale civil war, with more than 20,000 people reportedly displaced from Taiz and Hodeida over two weeks.
Impact on Regional Security: Houthi attacks on Saudi energy and economic targets, Saudi military responses and allegations of Iranian support have increased the possibility of the Yemen conflict becoming a wider regional confrontation.
Impact on India: Prolonged insecurity in the Red Sea can affect India’s trade and energy interests because the route connects Asian markets with Europe and the Middle East.

Mocha Port and the Red Sea Crisis FAQs

Q1: Where is Mocha Port located?

Ans: Mocha is a historic port city on Yemen’s western coast along the Red Sea, located roughly 80 km from the Bab el-Mandeb Strait.

Q2: Why is Mocha Port strategically important?

Ans: Mocha Port is strategically important because of its location on Yemen’s western coast and its proximity to the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, a major maritime chokepoint connecting the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden.

Q3: What is the Red Sea Crisis?

Ans: The Red Sea crisis refers to the disruption and security threats affecting commercial shipping in the Red Sea amid Houthi attacks, the conflict in Yemen and wider regional tensions.

Q4: Why is the Bab el-Mandeb Strait important?

Ans: The Bab el-Mandeb Strait connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and provides an important shipping route between Asia, Europe and the Middle East through the Suez Canal.

Q5: How does the Mocha capture affect the Red Sea crisis?

Ans: he capture of Mocha strengthens the Houthi position along Yemen’s western coast and brings their forces closer to areas around Bab el-Mandeb, increasing concerns over the security of international shipping and regional energy supplies.

Tax Evasion, Meaning, Causes, Government Measures, Latest News

September 11, 2026

Tax evasion is a major economic and governance challenge in India. It reduces government revenue, weakens public finances and creates an unfair burden on honest taxpayers.

The issue has also gained attention in the context of Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPPs), after investigations into alleged bogus political donations and misuse of tax deductions.

What is Tax Evasion?

Tax evasion refers to the illegal practice of deliberately hiding income, providing false information or using fraudulent methods to reduce or avoid the payment of taxes that are legally due.

It is different from tax avoidance, where taxpayers use legal provisions and exemptions to reduce their tax liability. Tax evasion is unlawful and can attract penalties, interest and prosecution.

How Can Tax Evasion Take Place Through Political Donations?

Political donations can be misused when a transaction is shown as a genuine donation on paper but the actual flow of money is different.

Under the tax framework, eligible donations to registered political parties can provide tax benefits subject to applicable conditions. This creates a possibility of misuse if fake or inflated donations are reported.

In such a case, the donor may show a large donation in official records and claim an eligible deduction, while the money may allegedly be returned through cash or other channels after deducting a commission.

Such arrangements can result in:

False claims of tax deductions
Loss of government tax revenue
Conversion of unaccounted money into apparently legitimate transactions
Possible money-laundering risks
Misuse of political-party registration
Lack of transparency in political funding

Causes of Tax Evasion

Tax evasion can occur due to a combination of economic, administrative and behavioural factors.

High tax burden: Some individuals and businesses may attempt to conceal income when they perceive their tax liability as excessive.
Complex tax rules: Complicated compliance requirements can create opportunities for deliberate misreporting.
Cash transactions: Large cash-based transactions can make it difficult to trace the actual movement of money.
Under-reporting of income: Individuals or businesses may report lower income or sales than they actually earn.
Fake invoices: Fraudulent or inflated invoices can be used to create artificial expenses or reduce taxable income.
Misuse of deductions: False claims for deductions and exemptions can reduce the amount of tax payable.
Shell companies: Complex company structures can be used to hide the actual ownership or source of funds.
Weak financial reporting: Manipulation of books and accounts can conceal actual business income.
Lack of transparency in political funding: Inadequate disclosure or verification of certain transactions can create opportunities for misuse.
Low perception of detection: Tax evasion may increase when taxpayers believe that the chances of investigation or punishment are low.

Government Measures to Curb Tax Evasion

The government has taken several measures to improve tax compliance, detect financial irregularities and prevent the concealment of income.

Digitalisation of Tax Administration: Online tax filing, e-payments and digital records make transactions easier to track and verify.
PAN and Aadhaar Linkage: Linking financial transactions with taxpayer identification helps identify discrepancies and suspicious activities.
GST and E-Invoicing: GST, e-way bills and e-invoicing create digital records of business transactions and help reduce under-reporting.
Data Analytics: The Income Tax Department uses data from multiple sources to identify unusual transactions and mismatches in reported income.
Faceless Assessment: Faceless assessment reduces direct interaction between taxpayers and tax officials, improving transparency and reducing the scope for corruption.
Action Against Shell Companies: Authorities take action against companies suspected of being used for hiding income or routing unaccounted money.
Information Sharing: Greater coordination among the Income Tax Department, GST authorities, banks and other agencies helps track financial irregularities.
Monitoring Political Donations: Greater scrutiny of political contributions, donation reports and tax deduction claims helps prevent the misuse of political funding channels.
Strict Penalties: Penalties, interest and prosecution provisions act as a deterrent against deliberate tax evasion.

What are Registered Unrecognised Political Parties?

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPPs) are political parties registered with the Election Commission of India (ECI) under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, but not recognised as either a National Party or a State Party.

Registered with ECI: They are formally registered with the Election Commission.
No recognised status: They do not meet the conditions required to be recognised as a National or State Party.
New political parties: Many RUPPs are newly formed parties that have not yet achieved the required electoral performance.
Electoral participation: They can contest elections, subject to applicable election laws and rules.
Financial reporting: They are required to comply with applicable financial disclosure and reporting requirements.
Tax benefits: Eligible political parties can receive certain tax benefits subject to the conditions prescribed under tax laws.
Not automatically illegal: Being an RUPP does not mean that the party is illegal or involved in tax evasion.

Tax Evasion vs Tax Avoidance

Tax evasion is illegal and involves deliberately violating tax laws, while tax avoidance generally uses legal provisions to reduce tax liability.

Tax Evasion vs Tax Avoidance
Tax Evasion	Tax Avoidance
It is illegal.	It generally involves legal methods.
Involves hiding income or giving false information.	Involves arranging financial affairs to reduce tax liability within the law.
May involve fake invoices, concealed income or false deductions.	May involve using available exemptions, deductions and tax benefits.
Can attract penalties, interest and prosecution.	Legitimate tax planning does not normally attract punishment.
Example: hiding actual business income from tax authorities.	Example: claiming an eligible deduction provided under tax law.
Directly violates tax laws.	Works within the provisions of tax laws, although aggressive schemes may face legal scrutiny.

Tax Evasion FAQs

Q1: What is tax evasion?

Ans: Tax evasion is the illegal practice of deliberately hiding income, providing false information or using fraudulent methods to reduce the amount of tax payable.

Q2: What are the common examples of tax evasion?

Ans: Common examples include concealing income, under-reporting sales, maintaining false accounts, using fake invoices, claiming fraudulent deductions and hiding assets or income.

Q3: What is the difference between tax evasion and tax avoidance?

Ans: Tax evasion is illegal, while tax avoidance generally involves using legal provisions to reduce tax liability. However, aggressive arrangements designed to misuse legal provisions may also face legal scrutiny.

Q4: How can political donations be used for tax evasion?

Ans: Fraudulent arrangements may involve showing a payment as a genuine political donation, claiming an eligible tax deduction and allegedly receiving the money back through another channel. Such transactions can result in false deduction claims and tax evasion.

Q5: What are Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPPs)?

Ans: RUPPs are political parties registered with the Election Commission of India but not recognised as either a National Party or a State Party.

Folk Arts of Maharashtra, Major Art Forms and Crafts, Significance

September 11, 2026

The Folk Arts of Maharashtra reflect the state’s rich tribal traditions, local lifestyles, religious beliefs, and connection with nature. These art forms include paintings, woodcraft, metalwork, pottery, and traditional storytelling. They have been passed down through generations and continue to represent the cultural heritage of Maharashtra.

Major Folk Arts of Maharashtra

Maharashtra is known for its rich folk arts and crafts, which reflect its diverse traditions, culture, and community life. Major forms such as Warli painting, Chitrakathi and Sawantwadi crafts are discussed below.

Warli Painting

Warli Painting is one of the most well-known tribal art forms of Maharashtra and is traditionally associated with the Warli community living mainly in the northern Sahyadri region, particularly around Palghar and Thane.
The paintings are known for their simple geometric shapes. Circles, triangles, and squares are used to represent elements of nature, people, houses, trees, and other aspects of village life.
Traditionally, Warli paintings were made on mud walls during important occasions such as weddings, harvests, and festivals. Artists used a white pigment prepared from rice paste, along with natural materials and simple bamboo-stick brushes.
The themes mainly focus on farming, hunting, animals, festivals, community life and nature. The famous Tarpa dance is also commonly represented through circular arrangements of human figures.
Warli art reflects the community’s close relationship with nature, agriculture and social life. Today, it is also created on paper, cloth, wood, furniture, and other products. Warli Painting has been officially registered as a Geographical Indication (GI) since 2014.

Chitrakathi Painting

Chitrakathi is a traditional storytelling art associated with Pinguli village in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. It developed as a visual medium for narrating stories from epics and traditional folklore.
The art was traditionally practiced by the Thakar community, which used painted panels or scrolls to narrate episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and other mythological stories.
Chitrakathi paintings use bold colours, strong outlines and expressive figures. Each sequence of paintings works like a visual story, helping the artist narrate events to an audience.
The tradition declined over time but is now being revived and promoted as an important part of Maharashtra’s cultural heritage.

Sawantwadi Craft

Sawantwadi craft is a traditional handicraft of the Konkan region, particularly associated with Sawantwadi in Sindhudurg district. It is famous for its colourful wooden toys, lacquerware, decorative objects and Ganjifa cards.
The craft includes lacquer work, wood turning, painting and decorative designs. Artisans create objects such as toys, dolls, chess sets, fruits, vegetables, boxes and other decorative items.
Sawantwadi art also includes three important styles - Chitrakathi, Temple and Ganjifa. Ganjifa is particularly known for its traditionally painted playing cards featuring mythological themes.
The craft has been preserved through generations of artisans and continues to represent the traditional artistic identity of Maharashtra’s Konkan region.

Dhokra Art

Dhokra is a traditional metal-casting craft associated with tribal and artisan communities. It involves creating objects and figurines using the lost-wax casting technique.
Artisans first prepare a model using wax and other natural materials, create a clay mould around it, and then heat the mould so that the wax melts away. Molten metal is then poured into the mould, creating the final object.
Dhokra products commonly include figurines, decorative objects, ritual items, lamps and household articles. The craft is valued for its handmade appearance and traditional designs.
In Maharashtra, Dhokra continues to be supported as part of the state’s traditional handicraft heritage, particularly among tribal artisan communities.

Biridware and Traditional Pottery

Traditional pottery and ceramic crafts form another part of Maharashtra’s folk craft traditions. These crafts use materials such as clay and mud to create useful and decorative objects.
The pottery may feature geometric patterns, painted designs, and distinctive shapes. Traditionally, such objects have been used for household, ceremonial and cultural purposes.
These crafts also highlight the important role of local materials and traditional skills in Maharashtra’s rural and tribal communities.

Also Read : Folk Dances of Maharashtra

Folk Arts of Maharashtra Significance

Preservation of Cultural Heritage: Folk arts preserve the traditional knowledge, customs, beliefs, and stories of Maharashtra’s tribal and rural communities and pass them from one generation to another.
Reflection of Community Life: Art forms such as Warli Painting and Chitrakathi depict everyday life, farming, festivals, nature, mythology, and social traditions, making them an important record of local culture.
Connection with Nature: Many traditional art forms show the close relationship between communities and their natural surroundings. Warli art, for example, uses simple forms to represent nature, agriculture, animals, and village life.
Support for Artisans and Livelihoods: Traditional crafts such as Sawantwadi woodcraft, bamboo craft, and Warli painting provide livelihood opportunities for local artisans and help sustain traditional skills.
Promotion of Tourism: Maharashtra’s folk arts have become an important part of cultural and heritage tourism, attracting visitors interested in traditional crafts, tribal communities, and local artistic traditions.
Preserving Tribal Identity: Folk arts strengthen the cultural identity of tribal communities such as the Warlis, Bhils, Gonds, Korkus, and Thakars by keeping their artistic traditions and cultural expressions alive.

Also Read : Festivals of Maharashtra

Role of Folk Arts in Preserving Maharashtra’s Cultural Heritage

Preservation of Traditions: Folk arts help pass traditional knowledge, skills, stories, and customs from one generation to another.
Expression of Community Life: Art forms such as Warli and Chitrakathi provide a visual record of tribal life, festivals, farming practices, beliefs, and local traditions.
Support for Artisans: The growing demand for traditional paintings, handicrafts, toys, and decorative products provides livelihood opportunities for local artisans.
Promotion of Cultural Identity: These art forms strengthen the cultural identity of Maharashtra and showcase its tribal and regional diversity.
Tourism and Wider Recognition: Traditional crafts such as Warli paintings and Sawantwadi handicrafts have gained wider recognition and contribute to cultural tourism and handicraft promotion.
Revival of Traditional Skills: Government institutions and cultural organisations continue to support the documentation, training, exhibitions, and promotion of traditional crafts, helping ensure that these skills remain relevant for future generations.

Also Read : Tribes of Maharashtra

Folk Arts of Maharashtra FAQs

Q1: What are the major Folk Arts of Maharashtra?

Ans: The major Folk Arts of Maharashtra include Warli Painting, Chitrakathi Painting, Sawantwadi Craft, Dhokra Art and traditional pottery.

Q2: What is Warli Painting famous for?

Ans: Warli Painting is known for its simple geometric designs and depiction of nature, farming, festivals, animals and community life.

Q3: Where did Chitrakathi Painting originate?

Ans: Chitrakathi Painting is traditionally associated with Pinguli village in Sindhudurg district and was used for visual storytelling based on epics and folklore.

Q4: What is Sawantwadi Craft known for?

Ans: Sawantwadi Craft is famous for colourful wooden toys, lacquerware, decorative objects, and Ganjifa cards.

Q5: What is Dhokra Art in Maharashtra?

Ans: Dhokra Art is a traditional metal craft made using the lost-wax casting technique to create figurines, decorative objects, and ritual items.

Folk Arts of Tripura 2026, List of Famous Craft, Dance, Music

September 11, 2026

Folk Arts of Tripura reflect the state’s diverse tribal and non tribal heritage. Bamboo, cane, clay, cotton and natural reeds are widely used by local artisans. Traditional dances, music, textiles, basketry, pottery, sculpture and architecture form important parts of this cultural tradition. Communities including Tripuri, Reang, Jamatia, Chakma, Garo, Halam, Mog and Uchoi preserve distinct artistic practices linked with festivals, livelihoods, rituals and everyday life.

Folk Arts of Tripura 2026

Folk Arts of Tripura are traditional creative practices developed by the state’s diverse communities. They include bamboo and cane crafts, basketry, handwoven textiles, pottery, mats, folk dances, music, rock sculpture and traditional structures. These arts often use locally available materials and techniques. Their designs, colours, motifs, instruments and performance styles also reflect the cultural identity of different ethnic communities.

Famous Folk Arts of Tripura List 2026

Folk Arts of Tripura combine traditional skills, natural materials, community customs and artistic expressions passed through generations.

Handicrafts Folk Arts of Tripura

Bamboo and Cane Crafts: Tripura is renowned for bamboo and cane handicrafts, including furniture, mats, lampshades, handbags, fans, screens, sculptures, baskets, decorative articles and household products.
Traditional Utility Items: Artisans make fish traps called Sudha, fish baskets called Dulla, rain shields called Pathla, headgear and small woven animal forms for practical and cultural use.
Riang Bamboo Craft: The Riang community uses bamboo and cane for housing and field fences. The Riang Hookah and other household articles show the material’s traditional importance.
Craft Institutions: The Craft Teacher’s Institute and Bamboo and Cane Development Institute in Agartala support skill development and help strengthen traditional craft production.

Basketry Folk Arts of Tripura

Jamatia Firewood Basket: This bamboo basket has a square base and widening sides. It is traditionally used for carrying firewood and reflects community specific utility based basket making.
Riang Carrying Basket: Tightly woven bamboo splits with cane bindings create this strong basket. The Riang community uses it for transporting and marketing grains.
Tukri and Karawala Tukri: These shallow baskets are associated with Agartala and Bengali communities. The Karawala Tukri has handles and is used for carrying construction materials.
Specialized Baskets: Laii is a small twill patterned basket used for washing rice. Sempa Khari and Date Basket provide compact storage options.
Turi and Grain Basket: Turi is designed for puffed rice. Large grain storage baskets use cow dung, clay and rice husk and taper from a square base to a circular rim.
Cattle Muzzles: Bamboo basketry also produces cattle muzzles used for restraining cattle. This demonstrates the practical range of Tripura’s traditional weaving skills.

Pottery Folk Arts of Tripura

Melaghar and Palpada Pottery: Villages in West Tripura are known for pressed clay art. Clay is shaped by pressing it into plaster of Paris moulds prepared from original designs.
Festival Pottery: Local artisans produce oil lamps, flower vases, decorative wall tiles and roofing tiles. Statues of popular gods and goddesses are especially prominent during festivals and fairs.
Traditional Mould Making: Artisans also make dies and moulds used for producing baked clay moulds required in the preparation of traditional sweets such as sondesh.

Traditional Textiles Folk Arts of Tripura

Risa: Risa is a handwoven fabric used by tribal communities. It has ritual and festive importance and is associated with Risa Sormani and Garia Puja.
Rignai and Rikutu: Rignai is the colourful lower drape of traditional Tripuri women. Rikutu works as a pallu like body covering, shawl, winter covering and formal garment.
Traditional Patterns: Tribal textiles feature horizontal stripes, geometric motifs and vibrant colours. Designs differ among communities and preserve distinctive cultural identities.
Lasingphee: Lasingphee is a quilted cotton fabric made by inserting cotton at regular intervals during weaving. It is used for quilts, scarves, bedspreads, shawls, mats, gowns and hunting coats.

Weaving Folk Arts of Tripura

Sitalpati Mats: These cool mats are made from Murta plants. Artisans split harvested reeds into fine strips and weave them manually into durable mats.
Traditional Designs: Sitalpati mats feature geometric shapes, stripes and floral patterns. Their cooling quality makes them particularly useful during summers, festivals, religious occasions and weddings.

Folk Dance and Music of Tripura

Garia Dance: Tripuri and Jamatia communities perform Garia dance during Garia Puja. It represents an important connection between traditional worship, community life and folk performance.
Hojagiri Dance: The Reang community is known for Hojagiri, performed by young girls while balancing on earthen pitchers. It is one of Tripura’s prominent traditional dance forms.
Jhum and Lebang Dances: Jhum or Tangbiti dance is associated with the harvest season. Lebang, Mamita and Mosak Sulmani are other important Tripuri folk dances.
Other Tribal Dances: Chakmas perform Bizhu dance during the Bizhu festival. Garo communities perform Wangala, while Halams perform Hai-Hak and Mogs perform Sangrai and Owa dances.
Folk Instruments: Sarinda, Chongpreng and Sumui are traditional instruments used in Tripura’s folk music. Songs accompany religious occasions, weddings, festivals and community celebrations.

Sculpture and Architecture of Tripura

Unakoti Rock Sculptures: Unakoti contains extensive rock carvings and sculptures. The site represents the long interaction of Hindu and Buddhist traditions with local artistic influences.
Pilak and Devtamura: Pilak and Devtamura are other important archaeological locations with stone carvings and rock sculptures. Together, these sites demonstrate Tripura’s historical sculptural heritage.
Bamboo Architecture: Bamboo has traditionally been used for houses, fences and practical structures. Halam communities are associated with Tong Ghar structures made from bamboo and thatch.

Folk Arts of Tripura Significance

Folk Arts of Tripura preserve community identity, support traditional livelihoods and connect material culture with festivals, rituals and everyday life.

Cultural Identity: Distinctive textiles, dances, instruments, crafts and designs preserve the cultural traditions of Tripuri, Reang, Jamatia, Chakma, Garo, Halam, Mog and other communities.
Sustainable Materials: Bamboo, cane, Murta reeds, clay and cotton are central materials. Their extensive use reflects traditional knowledge based on locally available resources.
Livelihood Support: Basketry, pottery, textiles and handicrafts provide economic opportunities for artisans. Products such as mats, furniture, baskets and decorative goods also reach markets beyond Tripura.
Ritual Importance: Risa, Garia dance, Hojagiri, Bizhu dance and festival pottery connect artistic practices with religious ceremonies, seasonal celebrations and community traditions.
Heritage Conservation: Institutions such as the Craft Teacher’s Institute and Bamboo and Cane Development Institute help strengthen skills and sustain Tripura’s traditional craft heritage.

Folk Arts of Tripura FAQs

Q1: What are the main Folk Arts of Tripura?

Ans: The main Folk Arts of Tripura include bamboo and cane crafts, basketry, pottery, textiles, Sitalpati mat weaving, folk dances, music, sculpture and traditional architecture.

Q2: Which handicraft is Tripura famous for?

Ans: Tripura is especially famous for bamboo and cane handicrafts, including baskets, mats, furniture, lampshades, handbags, decorative items and household products.

Q3: Which is the famous folk dance of Tripura?

Ans: Hojagiri is a famous folk dance of Tripura performed by the Reang community. Garia, Jhum, Lebang, Mamita and Bizhu are other important traditional dances.

Q4: What are the traditional textiles of Tripura?

Ans: Risa, Rignai and Rikutu are important traditional textiles of Tripura. Lasingphee is another distinctive quilted cotton fabric made by skilled artisans.

Q5: Which places are famous for traditional sculpture in Tripura?

Ans: Unakoti, Pilak and Devtamura are famous for their historic rock sculptures and stone carvings, reflecting Hindu, Buddhist and local artistic influences.

Constitutional Doctrines of the Supreme Court, Key Principles and Significance

September 11, 2026

constitutional doctrines of supreme court

The Constitutional Doctrines of the Supreme Court are important principles developed through judicial interpretation to explain and apply the provisions of the Indian Constitution. These doctrines help the judiciary resolve constitutional disputes, maintain the balance among different organs of government and protect the basic values of the Constitution. Over time, the Supreme Court has evolved several doctrines, including the Basic Structure Doctrine, Doctrine of Severability, Doctrine of Eclipse, Doctrine of Pith and Substance and Doctrine of Harmonious Construction.

Major Constitutional Doctrines Developed by the Supreme Court

1. Doctrine of Basic Structure

The Basic Structure Doctrine means that Parliament can amend the Constitution under Article 368, but it cannot change or destroy its basic structure or essential character. The Supreme Court has identified principles such as parliamentary democracy, fundamental rights, secularism, federalism and judicial review as part of the basic structure. However, the Court has not provided one fixed or complete list of all its elements.

Landmark Cases:
- In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the Supreme Court held for the first time that Parliament has the power to amend any part of the Constitution, but it cannot alter its basic structure.
- In Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975), the doctrine was reaffirmed. The Court struck down a provision of the 39th Constitutional Amendment that kept election disputes involving the Prime Minister and the Speaker of the Lok Sabha outside the jurisdiction of courts.
- The doctrine was further reaffirmed in the Minerva Mills case (1980) and the Waman Rao case (1981).

2. Doctrine of Separation of Powers

The Doctrine of Separation of Powers refers to the distribution of governmental functions among the legislature, executive and judiciary. Its purpose is to prevent excessive concentration of power in one organ and maintain a system of checks and balances.
The doctrine broadly suggests that one person should not simultaneously form part of different organs, one organ should not interfere with the functions of another and no organ should take over functions assigned to another organ.
Constitutional Provision:
- Article 50 of the Directive Principles of State Policy directs the State to separate the judiciary from the executive in public services. However, the Indian Constitution does not follow a completely rigid separation of powers.
Landmark Cases:
- In Ram Jawaya v. State of Punjab (1955), the Supreme Court held that the Indian Constitution does not recognise separation of powers in an absolute or rigid form, although the functions of different organs are sufficiently differentiated.
- In Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975), the Court recognised separation of powers as part of the basic structure of the Constitution.

3. Doctrine of Pith and Substance

The term pith refers to the true nature of something, while substance refers to its essential or most important part. This doctrine is used by courts to determine the real nature and character of a law when there is a question about the legislative competence of Parliament or a State Legislature.
The doctrine was first recognised in the Canadian Constitution and was adopted in India during the pre-independence period under the Government of India Act, 1935.
It is mainly applied when a law appears to deal with a subject outside the legislative field of the legislature that enacted it. The Court looks at the substance of the law rather than merely its form. It is particularly relevant to Article 246 and the subjects listed in the Seventh Schedule. It may also be applied in matters involving repugnancy between Central and State laws.
Landmark Case:
- In Prafulla v. Bank of Commerce (1946), the Court held that a State law dealing with money lending, a State subject, would not become invalid merely because it incidentally affected promissory notes.

4. Doctrine of Incidental or Ancillary Powers

The Doctrine of Incidental or Ancillary Powers is closely connected with the Doctrine of Pith and Substance. It allows a legislature to make laws on matters that are reasonably connected with the main subject on which it has the power to legislate.
While the Doctrine of Pith and Substance focuses on the subject matter of legislation, the ancillary powers doctrine deals with the additional powers required to effectively legislate on that subject. Its development can be traced to the English Court of Appeal's decision in R. v. Waterfield (1963).
Constitutional Provisions:
- Article 4 allows Parliament to make supplemental, incidental and consequential provisions while making laws relating to the formation or alteration of States under Articles 2 and 3.
- Article 169 also allows Parliament to make necessary supplemental, incidental and consequential provisions while providing for the creation or abolition of Legislative Councils in States.
Landmark Case:
- In State of Rajasthan v. G. Chawla (1958), the Supreme Court held that the power to legislate on a particular subject also includes the power to legislate on matters that are reasonably ancillary to that subject.

5. Doctrine of Severability

The Doctrine of Severability, also called the Doctrine of Separability, protects Fundamental Rights by ensuring that only the unconstitutional part of a law is declared invalid when it can be separated from the remaining valid provisions.
Under Article 13(1), laws that are inconsistent with Fundamental Rights are void only to the extent of that inconsistency. Therefore, the entire Act does not automatically become invalid if only some of its provisions violate Fundamental Rights.
However, if the valid and invalid portions are so closely connected that they cannot be separated, the entire law may be declared invalid. The doctrine has its roots in English law, including the case of Nordenfelt v. Maxim Nordenfelt Guns and Ammunition Company Ltd.
Landmark Cases:
- In A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950), the Supreme Court held that where only a particular provision is inconsistent with the Constitution, that provision may be declared void rather than invalidating the whole Act.
- In State of Bombay v. F.N. Balsara (1951), eight sections of the Bombay Prohibition Act were declared invalid, while the remaining provisions continued to operate because the invalid portions could be separated.

6. Doctrine of Eclipse

The Doctrine of Eclipse applies when a law comes into conflict with Fundamental Rights. Instead of treating such a law as completely void from the beginning, the doctrine considers the law to be dormant or unenforceable to the extent of the conflict.
In other words, the Fundamental Right overshadows the law and prevents its operation against citizens. If the constitutional restriction causing the conflict is later removed, the law may become enforceable again. According to the source material, such laws remain dormant against citizens but can continue to operate against non-citizens who do not enjoy the particular Fundamental Rights involved.
Constitutional Provision:
- The doctrine is associated with Article 13(1) and, according to the source material, applies to pre-constitutional laws and not to post-constitutional laws.
Landmark Case:
- In Bhikaji Narain Dhakras v. State of Madhya Pradesh (1955), a law giving the Provincial Government power to take over the motor transport business was found to violate Article 19(1)(g). The Supreme Court held that the law was temporarily eclipsed by the Fundamental Right.

7. Doctrine of Territorial Nexus

The Doctrine of Territorial Nexus deals with the territorial limits of legislative power. Generally, a law made by a State Legislature cannot operate outside the State. However, a State law may have an effect outside its territory when there is a sufficient and real connection, or nexus, between the State and the subject matter of the law.
The doctrine derives its basis from Article 245, which deals with the territorial extent of laws made by Parliament and State Legislatures. Article 245(2) also provides that a Parliamentary law cannot be considered invalid merely because it has extra-territorial operation.
Landmark Cases:
- In A.H. Wadia v. Income Tax Commissioner (1948), the Court held that the validity of a law made by the supreme legislative authority could not be challenged merely on the ground of extraterritoriality.
- In State of Bombay v. RMDC (1952), the Supreme Court found sufficient territorial nexus for taxation because the relevant activities connected with the transaction largely took place within Bombay.

8. Doctrine of Colourable Legislation

The Doctrine of Colourable Legislation is also known as “Fraud on the Constitution.” It prevents a legislature from doing indirectly what it is constitutionally prohibited from doing directly.
The doctrine is applied when a legislature does not have the power to make a law on a particular subject but attempts to achieve the same result through an indirect method. It is based on the principle that what a legislature cannot do directly, it cannot do indirectly.
Constitutional Provision:
- The doctrine is generally applied in relation to Article 246, which distributes legislative powers between Parliament and State Legislatures through the Union List, State List and Concurrent List.
Limitations:
- The doctrine does not apply when the legislature's powers are not subject to a constitutional limitation.
- It also does not apply to subordinate legislation.
Landmark Case:
- In R.S. Joshi v. Ajit Mills (1977), the Supreme Court discussed the concept of colourable exercise of legislative power and its connection with constitutional competence.

9. Doctrine of Pleasure

The Doctrine of Pleasure has its roots in English law, where a civil servant traditionally held office during the pleasure of the Crown. In India, the doctrine operates within the framework of the Constitution and is subject to important safeguards.
Under Article 155, the Governor is appointed by the President, while Article 156(1) provides that the Governor holds office during the pleasure of the President. . Under Article 310, members of the Defence Services, Civil Services, All-India Services and persons holding civil or military posts under the Union or a State hold office during the pleasure of the President or Governor, as applicable.
However, this power is not absolute. Article 311 provides constitutional safeguards to civil servants and places restrictions on arbitrary dismissal or removal from service.
Landmark Cases:
- In State of Bihar v. Abdul Majid (1954), the Supreme Court held that English Common Law had not been adopted in India in its entirety along with all its implications.
- In Union of India v. Tulsiram Patel (1985), the Court held that the pleasure doctrine was not a remnant of the feudal system or a special privilege of the British Crown, but was based on public policy.

10. Doctrine of Harmonious Construction

The Doctrine of Harmonious Construction is used when two or more provisions appear to conflict with each other. The Court tries to interpret them in a way that gives effect to all the provisions as far as possible, without making any provision meaningless or redundant.
The basic idea is that the Constitution or a statute should be read as a whole. When a provision has more than one possible meaning, the interpretation that allows different provisions to work together is preferred.
The doctrine developed through judicial interpretation, with its evolution in India being traced to cases such as Shankari Prasad v. Union of India. In CIT v. Hindustan Bulk Carriers (2003), the Supreme Court laid down important principles for applying harmonious construction.
Key Principles:
- Courts should try to avoid a direct conflict between apparently contradictory provisions.
- One provision should not normally be interpreted in a way that defeats another provision.
- Where provisions cannot be completely reconciled, they should be interpreted so that both operate as far as possible.
- An interpretation that makes a provision useless or meaningless should be avoided.
- Harmonious construction aims to reconcile provisions rather than destroy or nullify any part of the law.
Landmark Cases:
- In Re-Kerala Education Bill (1951), the Court applied the principle of harmonious construction while considering Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles and sought to give effect to both as far as possible.
- In East India Hotels Ltd. v. Union of India (2001), the Court emphasised that an Act should be read as a whole and its different provisions should be harmonised so that effect is given to all of them.

Role of Constitutional Doctrines in Protecting the Constitution

Constitutional doctrines have developed as important tools of judicial interpretation and constitutional protection. They help courts examine the validity of laws, interpret constitutional provisions and maintain a balance between different organs of government.

The Basic Structure Doctrine prevents constitutional amendments from destroying the fundamental identity of the Constitution.
The Separation of Powers Doctrine helps maintain a balance between the legislature, executive and judiciary.
The Pith and Substance and Incidental or Ancillary Powers doctrines help determine the proper limits of legislative competence.
The Doctrine of Severability protects Fundamental Rights while allowing the valid parts of a law to continue operating.
The Doctrine of Eclipse deals with laws that come into conflict with Fundamental Rights and keeps such laws dormant to the extent of the conflict.
The Doctrine of Territorial Nexus helps determine when State legislation can have an effect beyond the State's territory.
The Doctrine of Colourable Legislation prevents legislatures from bypassing constitutional limitations through indirect methods.
The Doctrine of Pleasure, subject to constitutional safeguards, regulates tenure and removal in public services.
The Doctrine of Harmonious Construction ensures that apparently conflicting constitutional or statutory provisions are interpreted together as far as possible.

Constitutional Doctrines of the Supreme Court Significance

Protects the Constitution: Constitutional doctrines help the Supreme Court protect the core principles and basic structure of the Constitution from arbitrary changes or actions.
Guides Constitutional Interpretation: These doctrines provide a consistent framework for interpreting constitutional provisions and resolving complex legal questions.
Protects Fundamental Rights: Doctrines such as Severability and Eclipse help safeguard Fundamental Rights by limiting the effect of unconstitutional laws.
Maintains Separation of Powers: They help maintain a balance among the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary and prevent one organ from exceeding its constitutional authority.
Prevents Misuse of Legislative Power: Doctrines such as Pith and Substance and Colourable Legislation help determine whether legislatures have acted within their constitutionally assigned powers.
Resolves Constitutional Conflicts: The Doctrine of Harmonious Construction helps courts interpret different constitutional provisions together so that one provision does not unnecessarily defeat another.

Constitutional Doctrines of the Supreme Court FAQs

Q1: What are Constitutional Doctrines of the Supreme Court?

Ans: Constitutional doctrines are principles developed by the Supreme Court through judicial interpretation to interpret the Constitution, resolve disputes and protect constitutional values.

Q2: What is the Basic Structure Doctrine?

Ans: The Basic Structure Doctrine states that Parliament can amend the Constitution under Article 368, but cannot alter or destroy its basic structure or essential features.

Q3: What is the Doctrine of Separation of Powers?

Ans: The Doctrine of Separation of Powers refers to the distribution of functions among the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary to prevent excessive concentration of power.

Q4: What is the Doctrine of Pith and Substance?

Ans: The Doctrine of Pith and Substance determines the true nature and character of a law to decide whether the legislature that enacted it had the constitutional power to do so.

Q5: What is the Doctrine of Severability?

Ans: The Doctrine of Severability allows the unconstitutional part of a law to be removed while retaining the remaining valid provisions, provided the two parts can be separated.

Red-Naped Ibis

September 11, 2026

Red-Naped Ibis Latest News

A new study of red-naped ibises in Udaipur found diverse bacteria in their faeces, including multidrug-resistant strains.

About Red-Naped Ibis

It is a common, resident, non-migratory wading bird.
It is also known as the Indian black ibis or black ibis.
Appearance: It has a bare dark head with a patch of crimson red warty skin on the crown and nape.
Habitat: It is found in a variety of habitats, including lakes, marshes, riverbeds, and irrigated farmlands. It is often found in dry fields, away from water bodies.
Distribution: It is widespread across the plains of the Indian Subcontinent.
- It is a common breeding resident in regions such as Haryana, Punjab, and the Gangetic plain, extending into southern India but absent from forested and arid zones.
Behaviour: It is diurnal, active during the day, and often seen foraging in small groups.
Diet: It is also an opportunistic omnivore, consuming insects, amphibians, reptiles, small fish, livestock carcasses and occasionally plant material.
Threats: The species has declined greatly due to hunting and habitat loss.
Conservation Status
- IUCN Red List: Least Concern
- Wild Life Protection Act 1972: Schedule-II

Source: IM

Red-Naped Ibis FAQs

Q1: What is Red-Naped Ibis?

Ans: It is a common, resident, non-migratory wading bird.

Q2: Where do we find Red-Naped Ibis?

Ans: It is widespread across the plains of the Indian Subcontinent

Bakhira Lake

September 11, 2026

Bakhira Lake Latest News

A new study that measured magnetic minerals accumulated in sediments below the Bakhira Lake over 25000 years helped track past changes in climate and how they have influenced rainfall, weathering, sediment transport and lake processes in northern India.

About Bakhira Lake

Location: It is located in the Ghaghara–Rapti alluvial system.
Formation: It represents a perennial oxbow/floodplain wetland formed through the migration and subsequent cut-off of the Rapti River.
It is one of the largest wetlands in Uttar Pradesh.
It was designated as a Ramsar Site in 2022.
Its floodplain–lacustrine setting favours the accumulation and preservation of sediments derived from both the lake and surrounding catchment.
It serves as a vital wintering and breeding ground for numerous migratory and resident waterfowl species.

Key Facts about Oxbow Lake

Formation: It is formed when a meandering river cuts off a loop, leaving behind a crescent-shaped water body
It is common in floodplains where rivers frequently change course
It usually shallow and may dry up over time due to silt deposition
It is rich in nutrients, making them suitable for agriculture and fishing nearby
Example: Oxbow lakes along the Ganga River plains.

Source: PIB

Bakhira Lake FAQs

Q1: Where is Bakhira Lake located?

Ans: It is located in the Ghaghara–Rapti alluvial system.

Q2: How did Bakhira Lake form?

Ans: It represents a perennial oxbow/floodplain wetland formed through the migration and subsequent cut-off of the Rapti River.

AlphaGenome Atlas

September 11, 2026

AlphaGenome Atlas Latest News

Recently, Google has unveiled the AlphaGenome Atlas.

About AlphaGenome Atlas

It is an extensive, high-resolution digital directory designed to predict how genetic alterations impact molecular biology.
It is an AI-powered interactive resource, mapping the predicted impact of all 9 billion DNA variants.
It works in a regular web browser, without any coding required, and is free for academic researchers.
Capacity: It is a 1 petabyte (PB) dataset containing every single possible nucleotide variant alongside an AlphaGenome Variant Impact (AVI) score.
It is available to researchers around the world, with coding and non-coding variations available.
It provides several powerful, interconnected resources, allowing researchers to link variants directly to the functional DNA sequences they disrupt.
Key Technical Features
- Molecular effect predictions: Atlas contains thousands of molecular effect predictions for each variant, across multiple important aspects of gene regulation, spanning hundreds of human and mouse cell types and tissues.
- AVI score: A single number describing the impact for each genetic variant.
- AVI feature attributions: Each AVI score is also linked to distinct biological features driving it, such as the aspects of gene regulation predicted by AlphaGenome or the protein impact score from AlphaMissense.
- DNA sequence motifs: A comprehensive collection of over 2,500 recurrent DNA sequences — the "words" of the genome — and their locations.

Source: TOI

AlphaGenome Atlas FAQ's

Q1: Which company launched the AlphaGenome Atlas?

Ans: Google DeepMind

Q2: How does AlphaGenome Atlas work?

Ans: It works in a regular web browser, without any coding required, and is free for academic researchers.

Mocha Port

September 11, 2026

Mocha Port Latest News

The Iran-aligned Houthis recently took control of the Yemeni port city of Mocha, advancing strategically down the Red Sea coast.

About Mocha Port

Mokha, or Mocha, is a historic town located in southwestern Yemen, on the Red Sea.
It was long famous as Arabia’s chief coffee-exporting center and the source of the term mocha.
It is the chief port on the northern approach to the Bab el-Mandeb Strait and is situated about 75 km north of Perim (Mayun) Island, where the strait reaches its narrowest point.
The nearby town of Dhubab, about 45 km south of Mokha, lies opposite Perim Island near the entrance to the strait.
History:
- Tradition holds that Mokha was founded in the 14th century by Sheikh ʿAlī ibn ʿUmar al-Shādhilī, the leader of a Sufi order (tariqa) who is supposed to have brought coffee drinking to Arabia from Ethiopia across the strait.
- An important trade center through the 17th century, it was regularly visited by Indian traders, who traded finished metal products for Yemeni coffee and myrrh.
- It also dealt with Egyptian merchants, who sailed to Mokha on the summer northwesterly Red Sea winds.
- Coffee for the European and Middle East markets was Mokha’s chief export from the 15th century.
- Trading establishments were maintained there by the British East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and, briefly, the Danes and the French.
- Long under Ottoman suzerainty, Mokha was surrendered to the imam of the Zaydī Shiʿah, Muḥammad al-Muʾayyad I, in 1636.
- It prospered in the 17th and early 18th centuries; even the port of Zeila (in present Somalia, across the Gulf of Aden) became tributary to Mokha and its rulers until 1884.
- The Ottomans held the town again from 1849 to 1918.
Decline:
- The conflicts between the European powers and the Ottoman Empire, and those between the Ottoman Empire and the Zaydī imams, contributed to the port’s decline.
- The decline was hastened by the development of coffee plantations on the island of Java (now in Indonesia) by the Dutch and by the rise of the South American coffee industry (early 18th century).
The modern port was established in 1955 and came to serve as a minor logistics and military hub between the major commercial ports of Aden and Hodeidah.

News: DEVD

Mocha Port FAQs

Q1: Where is Mokha, or Mocha Port, located?

Ans: In southwestern Yemen, on the Red Sea.

Q2: What was Mocha historically famous for?

Ans: It was famous as Arabia’s chief coffee-exporting centre.

Q3: Which important maritime strait is Mocha Port located near?

Ans: The Bab el-Mandeb Strait.

Q4: Which empire exercised long-term suzerainty over Mocha?

Ans: The Ottoman Empire.

Q5: Which geopolitical conflicts contributed to the decline of Mocha Port?

Ans: Conflicts between European powers and the Ottoman Empire, and between the Ottoman Empire and Zaydī imams.

Nandankanan Zoological Park

September 11, 2026

Nandankanan Zoological Park Latest News

Nandankanan Zoological Park recently introduced musical therapy for the five abandoned baby orangutans to help them cope with stress.

About Nandankanan Zoological Park

Nandankanan, literally meaning “The Garden of Heaven”, is located on the banks of Kanjia Lake in Barang, about 20 km from Bhubaneswar, the capital city of Odisha.
Unlike other zoos in the country, it has been built inside a natural forest (Chandaka Forest), which is moist deciduous in nature and remains semi-evergreen.
It also contains a botanical garden, and part of it has been declared a sanctuary.
It is the first zoo in India to gain membership in the World Association of Zoos & Aquariums (WAZA).
It is the sole zoo in India to inspire an express train named after it—the Nandankanan Express, as recognised by the Indian Railways.
Since its inception, the zoo has been successful in breeding several endangered species, including Leopard, Tiger, Lion-tailed macaque, Asiatic lion, Nilgiri langur, Mouse deer, Indian pangolin, Indian crocodiles, Ratel, Brow-antlered deer, and many other water and land birds.
Nandankanan has the distinction of being the first zoo in the world to breed Melanistic and White tigers and the sole conservation breeding center for Indian Pangolins across the globe.
It is the first zoo in the country to feature an open-top enclosure for leopards and also the first where endangered Ratels were born in captivity.
It is also known for being the first one to begin captive breeding of Gharials.

News: TELE

Nandankanan Zoological Park FAQs

Q1: Where is Nandankanan Zoological Park located?

Ans: In Barang, near Bhubaneswar, the capital city of Odisha. .

Q2: On the banks of which lake is Nandankanan Zoological Park located?

Ans: Kanjia Lake.

Q3: Which forest is associated with Nandankanan Zoological Park?

Ans: Chandaka Forest.

Q4: Which zoo has the distinction of being the first in the world to breed melanistic and white tigers?

Ans: Nandankanan Zoological Park.

UNESCO International Literacy Prize

September 11, 2026

UNESCO International Literacy Prize Latest News

Recently, UNESCO presented the 2026 International Literacy Prizes during the International Literacy Day global function ceremony held in the state of Chiapas, Mexico.

About UNESCO International Literacy Prize

It has been awarded since 1967.
The Prizes aim to promote literacy as a foundation for lifelong learning, equity and sustainable development, especially in light of ongoing global challenges.
Eligibility: Individuals, non-governmental organisations and government bodies involved in literacy promotion can apply when their programmes demonstrate measurable impact and align with that year’s theme.
- International Literacy Day 2026 theme was “Literacy for people, the planet, and prosperity”.
The prizes include six annual awards
- UNESCO King Sejong Literacy Prize (3 awards)
  - It has been supported by the Government of the Republic of Korea since 1989, the Prize highlights mother-tongue and multilingual literacy efforts.
  - Each laureate receives a medal, a diploma and US$ 30,000.
- UNESCO Confucius Prize for Literacy (3 awards)
  - It has been supported by the Government of the People’s Republic of China since 2005.
  - It recognizes programmes supporting functional literacy in rural areas and among out-of-school youth, particularly through technology.
  - Each laureate receives a medal, a diploma, and US$ 30,000.

Source: UNESCO

UNESCO International Literacy Prize FAQ's

Q1: When was UNESCO International Literacy Prize established?

Ans: In the year 1967.

Q2: What is the aim of UNESCO International Literacy Prize?

Ans: It aims to promote literacy as a foundation for lifelong learning, equity and sustainable development, especially in light of ongoing global challenges.

Levees

September 11, 2026

Levees Latest News

Nearly 2,000 kilometres of levees built along the Mississippi River over the past century helped protect cities and farmland from major floods.

About Levees

A levee is a structure, either natural or artificial, built along the edges of a stream or river channel to prevent flooding of the adjacent land.
It can also be used to divert the river to increase land for construction.
In some countries, levees are used to prevent water from flowing inland from the sea or diverting the river's course, revealing fertile soil.
They can also be used to prevent rivers from overflowing into cities during storms.
They are very important features, but if they break, the consequences are disastrous.
How Do Levees Occur?
- A majority of levees form from earth material.
- The flow of a water body pushes river sediments to the sides, thus creating a levee.
- The riverbank forms a levee made of silk, sediment, and other material such as dead plants to the side as the water flows.
- They stretch parallel to the river and control the flow.
- Natural levees can be reinforced using artificial material.
- In cases where levees do not exist, then artificial ones are constructed. They are made by piling rocks, sand, and soil along the riverbank.
- When the river flow is too strong, they can be made of metal, wood, or plastic material. In some places, they are made of concrete.
- Levees are constructed to a variety of heights and widths and with a variety of materials. The height or width of a levee often depends upon possible rain and storm events.
- One of the largest modern systems of levees is that built along the Mississippi River In the central United States.
Sea Levees:
- A majority of the leaves are used to control the flow of the river, but others are built along the coast.
- The Netherlands is a prime example of how dams, levees, and dikes can be used to control tides.
- The reclaimed land is then used for agricultural or residential use.
- A levee was also constructed along the coast of the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in Canada to prevent high tides from flowing inland.

News: TOI

Levees FAQs

Q1: What is a levee?

Ans: A levee is a natural or artificial structure built along the edges of a stream or river channel to prevent flooding of adjacent land.

Q2: What is the primary purpose of a levee?

Ans: To prevent flooding of land adjacent to rivers and streams.

Q3: What are most natural levees made of?

Ans: Earth materials such as sediments, silt and other river-deposited materials.

Q4: What materials can be used to construct artificial levees?

Ans: Rocks, sand, soil, metal, wood, plastic and concrete.

Q5: What can happen if a levee breaks?

Ans: It can cause disastrous flooding and extensive damage.

Gooty Fort

September 11, 2026

Gooty Fort Latest News

After review, the Union Ministry of Communications and Department of Posts recently forwarded the proposal for a commemorative postage stamp on Gooty Fortit to the Union Minister of Communications for final approval.

About Gooty Fort

Gooty Fort, also known as Ravadurg and Gutti Kota, is an ancient hilltop fortress located in the town of Gooty in the Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh.

Gooty Fort History

Inscriptions found here appear to be from the reign of the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI Tribhuvanamalla (1076 CE - 1126 CE).
It was also the site of a major battle between the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas under Vira Rajendra (1063 CE - 1070 CE) when the latter laid siege to the fort.
The defenders fought well and hard and beat back the Cholas.
The area later was taken over by the Vijayanagar empire and once was the abode of one of the most powerful Hindu rulers of all time, Krishnadevaraya.
The Qutb Shahi dynasty succeeded the Vijayanagar empire and subsequently fell into the hands of the Mughals when their capital of Golconda was annexed.
In the 18th century, the Maratha general Murari Rao captured the fort area and revamped the structure to strengthen it.
Hyder Ali, the then ruler of the Mysore kingdom and father of Tipu Sultan, forced Murari Rao to surrender when he ran out of water supplies.
With the onset of the British invasion of India, the important fort fell into the hands of the British East India Company.

Gooty Fort Architecture

It is a blend of Hindu-Islamic architecture.
It was made of granite rocks, and the domes were constructed with fine stone, mortar, and lime, ensuring sustainability.
Built in the shape of a shell, this fort actually comprises 15 small forts with different gateways.
The outer wall with bastions connects all the gateways of smaller forts.
The fort also features two imposing buildings, one of which is a gymnasium, while other is a barrack.
On the edge of the cliff, there is a pavilion of polished limestone called Morari Rao’s seat.
Various wells were created at the top of the hill.
There are several temples within the fort, like the Lakshmi Narasimha Temple, Nageswara Swami Temple, Hanuman Temple, Jyothimma Temple, and the Ramaswamy Temple.
There is also a Dargah inside the fortification.
There are several ruined structures on the upper level of the fort.

News: HANS

Gooty Fort FAQs

Q1: Where is Gooty Fort located?

Ans: Gooty town in Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh.

Q2: The inscriptions at Gooty Fort appear to belong to the reign of which king?

Ans: Inscriptions found here appear to be from the reign of the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI Tribhuvanamalla (1076 CE - 1126 CE).

Q3: What architectural styles are reflected in Gooty Fort?

Ans: Hindu and Islamic architectural styles.

Q4: What material was primarily used to construct Gooty Fort?

Ans: Granite rocks.

Exercise Yudh Abhyas

September 11, 2026

Exercise Yudh Abhyas Latest News

The United States Army and Indian Army recently commenced Exercise Yudh Abhyas 2026, marking the 22nd iteration of the premier annual bilateral training event between the two nations.

About Exercise Yudh Abhyas

It is the annual bilateral military exercise between the Indian Army and the United States Army.
It focuses on enhancing interoperability, joint operational capabilities, and military cooperation between the two countries.
2026 Edition:
- It is the 22nd edition of the exercise.
- The first phase is scheduled at the Mahajan Field Firing Range in Rajasthan, near the Pakistan border.
- The forces will then move to the high-altitude terrain of Auli in Uttarakhand, close to the Line of Actual Control with China.
- It focuses on high-altitude warfare, long-range precision fires, counter-drone capabilities, and greater operational interoperability.
- It features the deployment of Arctic-trained soldiers from the US Army’s 11th Airborne Division, based at Fort Wainwright, Alaska, to the high altitudes of India.
- The exercise is bolstered by the participation of the 3rd Multi-Domain Task Force, introducing advanced long-range precision fires and integrated command-and-control systems to the bilateral framework.
- The drills consist of a command post exercise and a field training exercise, culminating in a combined live-fire demonstration involving U.S. and Indian long-range precision fires and rocket systems.
- Operating under the strategic framework of Operation Pathways, this year’s exercise marks a historic milestone with the first-of-its-kind deployment of advanced counterdrone systems to India.
- The integration of the mobile low, slow, small unmanned aircraft integrated defeat system (MLIDS) allows both nations to adapt together to emerging battlefield threats and reinforce regional readiness.

Other Exercises between India and USA

Vajra Prahar: Indian Army Special Forces + U.S. Army Special Forces
Cope India: Indian Air Force + U.S. Air Force
Malabar: Indian Navy + U.S. Navy, Japan, and Australia
Tiger Triumph: India–U.S. tri-service exercise with a focus including amphibious and HADR operations.

News: TOI

Exercise Yudh Abhyas FAQs

Q1: What is Exercise Yudh Abhyas?

Ans: An annual bilateral military exercise between the Indian Army and the United States Army.

Q2: Which countries participate in Exercise Yudh Abhyas?

Ans: India and the United States.

Q3: What is the main objective of Exercise Yudh Abhyas?

Ans: To enhance interoperability, joint operational capabilities, and military cooperation between India and the United States.

Q4: Which edition of Exercise Yudh Abhyas is being held in 2026?

Ans: The 22nd edition.

7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation Meeting 2026, Significance

September 11, 2026

The 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation Meeting 2026 was held in Bengaluru on 8 September 2026. It reviewed bilateral work on forests, biodiversity conservation, forest genetics, research, technology and capacity building. The meeting was conducted through the India-Japan Joint Working Group under the Memorandum of Cooperation signed in 2015. Both countries also endorsed a new Roadmap for 2027-2031.

What is 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation 2026?

The 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation meeting strengthened institutional and technical collaboration through discussions on tree resources, forest genetics, forest assessment and field based conservation practices.

Meeting: The 7th Meeting of the India-Japan Joint Working Group on forests was held in Bengaluru on 8 September 2026.
Leadership: Ramesh Kumar Pandey led the Indian delegation, while Shimizu Kotaro headed the Japanese delegation.
Indian and Japanese Officials: Ramesh Kumar Pandey is Additional Director General (Forests), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Shimizu Kotaro is Deputy Director General, Forestry Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.

7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation Meeting 2026 Objectives

The major objectives of the 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation 2026 has been highlighted below:

Strengthen Forest Cooperation: Deepen bilateral cooperation between India and Japan in forests, biodiversity conservation, research and capacity building under the 2015 Memorandum of Cooperation.
Improve Tree Resource Management: Exchange knowledge on the assessment, management and genetic improvement of Tree Outside Forests (TOFs) and strengthen approaches for managing tree resources.
Promote Forest Genetics: Cooperate in genetic resource conservation, tree breeding, improved planting material and germplasm conservation for better forest resource management.
Enhance Forest Assessment and Monitoring: Share knowledge on forest inventory, forest stock assessment, geospatial technologies and monitoring practices for improved forest management and informed decision making.

7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation Meeting 2026

The key highlights of the discussions, outcomes and cooperation during the meeting of 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation 2026 is given below:

Discussions:

- India and Japan exchanged experiences on assessment, management and genetic improvement of Tree Outside Forests. These include trees growing on farms, field boundaries, homesteads, roadsides and other non forest areas.
- Cooperation covered conservation of genetic resources, tree breeding, improved planting material and germplasm conservation. These areas support better management and preservation of valuable forest genetic resources.
- Discussions covered forest inventory, forest stock assessment, geospatial technologies and monitoring systems. These areas can improve forest information, assessment and management practices in both countries.
- Both countries endorsed the Roadmap for 2027-2031 under the Memorandum of Cooperation signed in 2015. It aims to deepen cooperation in forests, biodiversity conservation, research and capacity building.
Minutes of the Meeting: The 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation meeting concluded with the signing of the Minutes of the 7th Joint Working Group. This reaffirmed continued bilateral cooperation in forestry.
Institutional Visit: The delegations visited the Institute of Wood Science and Technology in Bengaluru and interacted with officials of the Karnataka Forest Department during the programme.
Mysuru Field Programme: On 9 September 2026, the delegations were scheduled to visit sandalwood agro-forestry farms, a sandalwood depot and a processing unit in Mysuru to exchange practical experiences.
Nagarhole Visit: A visit to Nagarhole Tiger Reserve was scheduled for 10 September 2026. It was planned to support exchange of experiences on wildlife conservation practices.

7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation Significance

The 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation connects forest governance with biodiversity protection, research, technology and practical field experience, creating wider opportunities for sustainable forest resource management.

Bilateral Forestry Cooperation: The 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation strengthens the Joint Working Group mechanism created under the 2015 Memorandum of Cooperation between the two countries.
Biodiversity Conservation: The partnership gives importance to biodiversity conservation along with forest management. The Nagarhole field visit adds practical exposure to wildlife conservation approaches.
Agro-Forestry Learning: Discussions on Tree Outside Forests and planned sandalwood farm visits encourage knowledge exchange on trees outside designated forests and sandalwood cultivation on private farms.
Technology and Research: Forest inventory, geospatial technologies, monitoring, forest genetics and research provide important areas for exchanging knowledge, improving forest assessment and building institutional capacity.

7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation FAQs

Q1: When was the 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation meeting held?

Ans: The 7th India-Japan Joint Working Group meeting on forests was held in Bengaluru on 8 September 2026.

Q2: Who led the Indian delegation at the 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation meeting?

Ans: Ramesh Kumar Pandey, Additional Director General (Forests), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, led the Indian delegation.

Q3: What were the key areas discussed in the 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation?

Ans: The key areas were Tree Outside Forests, Forest Genetics and Forest Stack, covering forest resources, genetics, inventory, assessment and monitoring technologies.

Q4: What roadmap was endorsed under the India-Japan forest cooperation?

Ans: India and Japan endorsed the Roadmap for 2027-2031 under the Memorandum of Cooperation signed in 2015.

Q5: Why is the 7th India-Japan Forest Cooperation important?

Ans: It strengthens cooperation in forests, biodiversity conservation, research and capacity building while promoting knowledge exchange in forest management and wildlife conservation.

India’s Space Station by 2035, Bharat Antariksha Station, Gaganyaan

September 11, 2026

Union Minister of State for Science and Technology Dr. Jitendra Singh has said that India aims to establish its own space station, the Bharat Antariksha Station (BAS), by 2035 and send an Indian astronaut to the Moon by 2040. The announcement is part of India’s broader Space Vision 2047, which seeks to expand the country’s human spaceflight, space science and exploration capabilities.

What is Bharat Antariksha Station?

Bharat Antariksha Station (BAS) is India's planned indigenous space station. It is expected to become an important platform for human spaceflight, microgravity research, space technology development and long-duration missions.

The space station is part of India's long-term human spaceflight programme. ISRO's broader roadmap includes the Gaganyaan programme, successive lunar missions and eventually a crewed Moon landing by 2040.

The BAS will help India develop the capability to conduct experiments and maintain a continuous human presence in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

What Role Will ISRO Play in India’s Space Station Mission?

ISRO will lead the development, launch and operation of the Bharat Antariksha Station (BAS), building on its experience in Gaganyaan, Chandrayaan and other space missions. It will also develop the technologies needed for long-duration human spaceflight and future lunar exploration.

Design and development: Develop the station modules, life-support systems, spacecraft and other critical technologies.
Human spaceflight: Use Gaganyaan experience to safely transport and support astronauts aboard the station.
Launch and docking: Launch station modules and develop space-docking technology for connecting spacecraft and modules in orbit.
Research and experiments: Enable microgravity research in fields such as medicine, biotechnology, materials science and physics.
Station operations: Manage mission control, communication, astronaut safety, maintenance and long-duration missions.
Future Moon missions: Use the experience gained from BAS to support India’s planned crewed Moon mission by 2040.
Private-sector participation: Work with Indian space startups and private companies to strengthen the domestic space ecosystem.

Gaganyaan The First Step Towards India’s Space Station

Gaganyaan is India’s first human spaceflight programme, designed to demonstrate the country’s capability to send astronauts safely into Low Earth Orbit and bring them back to Earth, providing key technologies and experience for the future Bharat Antariksha Station.

Human spaceflight: The mission aims to send Indian astronauts into Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and safely return them to Earth.
Crew and mission: The planned mission involves a three-member crew spending about three days in orbit at around 400 km altitude.
Human-rated launch vehicle: ISRO is developing the Human-Rated Launch Vehicle (HLVM3) based on the LVM3 platform to carry the crew module.
Crew safety: The programme includes a Crew Escape System to protect astronauts during emergencies, particularly during launch.
Life-support systems: Gaganyaan will develop technologies for oxygen supply, temperature control, pressure management and other crew-support requirements.
Astronaut training: Selected astronauts undergo specialised training in spaceflight procedures, emergency response, physical fitness and mission operations.
Re-entry and recovery: ISRO is developing systems to safely re-enter the atmosphere, land the crew module and recover astronauts after the mission.
Foundation for BAS: Technologies developed through Gaganyaan will provide the foundation for long-duration human missions and future operations aboard the Bharat Antariksha Station.

Importance of Bharat Antariksha Station for India’s Space Vision by 2035

The India’s Space Station by 2035, known as the Bharat Antariksha Station (BAS), will strengthen India’s capabilities in human spaceflight, scientific research, space technology and deep-space exploration. It can also support India’s long-term goal of sending an Indian astronaut to the Moon by 2040.

Boosts space research: BAS will provide a platform for microgravity experiments in medicine, biotechnology, materials science and physics.
Strengthens human spaceflight: It will help India gain experience in long-duration crewed missions, astronaut health and life-support systems.
Supports Moon missions: Experience from operating the station will help develop technologies needed for future crewed lunar missions.
Promotes space economy: The project can create opportunities for Indian space startups and private companies in spacecraft, robotics, electronics and other technologies.
Enhances strategic autonomy: An indigenous space station will reduce India's dependence on other countries for human spaceflight and orbital research.
Encourages international cooperation: BAS can become a platform for joint scientific experiments and space missions with other countries.
Develops advanced technology: The programme will accelerate innovation in space docking, robotics, life-support systems and space habitats.

India’s Space Station by 2035 FAQs

Q1: What is Bharat Antariksha Station?

Ans: Bharat Antariksha Station is India's planned indigenous space station, which is targeted for commissioning by 2035.

Q2: Who will develop Bharat Antariksha Station?

Ans: The programme will be led by ISRO under the Department of Space, with increasing participation from India's wider space ecosystem.

Q3: When will India establish its space station?

Ans: India aims to establish the Bharat Antariksha Station by 2035.

Q4: When will an Indian land on the Moon?

Ans: India has set a long-term target of achieving a crewed Indian Moon landing by 2040.

Q5: How is Gaganyaan related to Bharat Antariksha Station?

Ans: Gaganyaan will develop India's basic human spaceflight capabilities, which will be essential for future operations involving the space station.

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties: Fixing Political Funding Gaps

September 11, 2026

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties Latest News

A recent media investigation has revealed that six Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPPs), all based in Gujarat, received donations of around Rs 1,700 crore in 2023-24. This is more than the combined donations of five nationally recognised parties, excluding the BJP, which received Rs 1,480 crore in the same period.
The revelation has raised serious concerns about opaque political funding and the misuse of tax exemptions by non-serious parties.

What Are Registered Political Parties

Political parties are associations or bodies of individuals formed by citizens.
Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RP Act) lays down the requirements for registering a political party with the Election Commission (EC).
After scrutiny of the documents submitted, the EC registers the party as RUPP.
RUPPs enjoy three key benefits:
- Tax exemption on donations received under Section 12 of the Income Tax Act, 2025.
- A common symbol for contesting general elections to the Lok Sabha or State Assemblies.
- Twenty "star campaigners" during election campaigns.
In return, RUPPs must fulfil certain obligations:
- Maintain details of individual donors contributing more than Rs 20,000 in a financial year and submit them to the EC annually.
- Under Section 29C of the RP Act, failure to do so leads to loss of income tax exemption.
- Accept donations above Rs 2,000 only through cheque or bank transfer, as required by the Income Tax Act, 2025.

The Problem of "Letter Pad Parties"

As per the EC notification, India had more than 2,800 RUPPs as of July, but only around 750 contested the 2024 general elections.
The rest have earned the moniker "letter pad parties", existing largely on paper.
The core issue is the EC's limited power. The RP Act does not explicitly empower the EC to de-register a party that fails to contest elections, conduct inner-party elections or file required returns.
In Indian National Congress vs Institute of Social Welfare & Ors (2002), the Supreme Court held that the EC cannot de-register a political party under the RP Act, except in exceptional circumstances:
- Registration obtained by fraud.
- The party ceasing to owe allegiance to the Constitution.
- The party being declared unlawful by the government.
The EC periodically publishes lists of de-listed RUPPs. The October 2025 notification contained over 800 such parties.

Why the Six Gujarat Parties Remain Active

The six parties named in the investigation are Aam Janmat Party, Bharatiya National Janata Dal, Garib Kalyan Party, New India United Party, Satyawadi Rakshak Party and Swatantrata Abhivyakti Party.
All remain on the EC's active list as of October 2025 because they collectively fielded 15 candidates in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.
Contesting a token number of seats allows them to retain their registration and tax benefits.

Poor Compliance and Lack of Transparency

The Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) periodically publishes reports on RUPP compliance.
Its July 2025 report, analysing annual reports for 2022-23, found that reports of only 26 per cent of RUPPs were available in the public domain.
Poor compliance with statutory requirements, combined with weak transparency, allows these parties to function as opaque channels for tax evasion and money laundering.

Way Forward

Empower the EC to de-register parties. The Law Commission, in its 255th report, recommended amendments to allow de-registration of a party that fails to contest elections for ten consecutive years.
- The EC, in its 2016 memorandum on electoral reforms, also sought powers to de-register parties.
- These reforms would enable action against non-serious parties that serve merely as a front for illegal financial transactions.
Strengthen enforcement. Even if de-registration powers are granted, parties may contest a few seats simply to meet the statutory requirement while continuing to misuse tax exemptions.
- In today's digital environment, the Income Tax Department and other enforcement agencies can easily monitor the transactions of such parties.
- Strict action against wrongdoing would act as a deterrent.
Introduce a vote threshold for tax exemptions. The EC had earlier suggested that tax exemptions be given only to parties that win seats in the Lok Sabha or State Assemblies.
- Analysts consider this undemocratic and extreme, since many parties contest elections consistently without winning.
- Instead, they propose a vote percentage threshold, similar to the 1 per cent vote threshold used for allotting common symbols to RUPPs.
- Only parties crossing this threshold should be eligible for tax exemptions on donations.

Conclusion

The RUPP framework was designed to nurture political participation, but weak statutory provisions and poor compliance have turned it into a loophole for opaque funding.
Empowering the EC to de-register non-serious parties, strengthening enforcement and linking tax exemptions to a reasonable vote threshold would restore integrity to political funding without stifling genuine small parties.

Source: TH | BL

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties FAQs

Q1: What are Registered Unrecognised Political Parties?

Ans: Registered Unrecognised Political Parties are political associations registered with the Election Commission under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act.

Q2: Why are RUPPs facing scrutiny over political funding?

Ans: RUPPs face scrutiny because some receive substantial donations despite limited electoral activity, raising concerns about opaque funding and misuse of tax exemptions.

Q3: What are “letter pad parties”?

Ans: “Letter pad parties” are RUPPs that largely exist on paper, with only around 750 of more than 2,800 parties contesting the 2024 elections.

Q4: Why can’t the Election Commission easily deregister RUPPs?

Ans: The Representation of the People Act does not explicitly empower the Election Commission to deregister parties for failing to contest elections or comply.

Q5: How can political funding through RUPPs be made more transparent?

Ans: The framework could empower deregistration, strengthen enforcement and link donation tax exemptions to a reasonable vote threshold rather than mere registration.

BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030, Focus Areas, Importance

September 11, 2026

BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 was finalised during the 16th BRICS Trade Ministers’ Meeting held in Jaipur in August 2026, under India’s BRICS Chairship. The strategy is the next long-term framework for economic cooperation after the earlier strategy that covered the period up to 2025. BRICS Trade Ministers agreed to submit it to the BRICS Leaders for endorsement at the New Delhi Summit in September 2026.

BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 Key Focus Areas

BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 focuses on strengthening economic cooperation among member countries through trade, investment, digital services, finance and resilient supply chains.

Multilateral Trading System: Supports an open, transparent and rules-based trading system with the WTO at its core, while protecting the interests of developing countries.
Resilient Global Value Chains: Promotes diversified and resilient supply chains and deeper cooperation in critical sectors such as pharmaceuticals, agriculture and food security.
Digital Economy and Services: Encourages digital trade, AI, e-commerce and cross-border digital services while promoting common principles for digitally delivered services.
MSMEs and Trade Finance: Focuses on improving access to trade finance, credit and international markets for MSMEs, including through invoice discounting mechanisms.
Financial Cooperation: Promotes greater use of national currencies, efficient cross-border payment systems and stronger financial cooperation among member countries.
Innovation and Technology: Encourages cooperation in research, emerging technologies, start-ups and innovation to support technology-led economic growth.
Sustainable Development: Promotes green growth, sustainable infrastructure, renewable energy and food security while ensuring more inclusive economic development.

Also Read:- 18th BRICS Summit 2026

Importance of BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 for India

The strategy is important for India because BRICS countries are major trading and investment partners, while India is also seeking to diversify its supply chains and expand exports. The framework can support India’s MSMEs, services sector, digital economy and manufacturing while strengthening its role in the Global South.

Boosts Trade and Exports: India’s merchandise exports stood at US$437.70 billion in 2024-25. Better market access within BRICS can help Indian sectors such as pharmaceuticals, engineering goods, electronics and agriculture expand their exports.
Reduces Trade Dependence: China alone accounted for about US$131.62 billion of India’s imports in FY 2025-26 (YTD), while imports from Russia were about US$55.36 billion. Stronger BRICS cooperation can help India diversify sourcing and build more balanced trade relationships.
Supports MSMEs: The strategy’s focus on trade finance, credit assessment and invoice discounting can help Indian MSMEs overcome financing barriers and participate in international trade and global value chains.
Strengthens Supply Chains: India can attract investment by becoming a more reliable manufacturing and sourcing hub, particularly in pharmaceuticals, electronics, critical sectors and agriculture. This can reduce excessive dependence on a single source.
Promotes Digital Economy: India can leverage its experience with UPI and Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) to promote cross-border digital payments, digital services and e-commerce among BRICS economies.
Improves Financial Cooperation: Greater use of national currencies and efficient cross-border payment systems can reduce transaction costs and make trade settlements easier for Indian businesses.

BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 Major Outcomes of Jaipur Meeting

16th BRICS Trade Ministers’ Meeting in Jaipur focused on finalising the BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 and making economic cooperation more practical. The meeting addressed trade, services, MSMEs, supply chains, digital economy and financial cooperation.

Economic Partnership Strategy 2030: The strategy was finalised under India’s 2026 BRICS Chairship as the long-term framework for economic cooperation beyond 2025.
WTO-Centred Trade System: BRICS reaffirmed support for an open, transparent and rules-based multilateral trading system, with the WTO at its core.
Global Value Chains: The GVC Action Plan 2026-2030 was advanced to promote diversified and resilient supply chains and reduce excessive dependence on a single source.
MSME Support: The meeting focused on improving trade finance and credit access for MSMEs, including work on an invoice discounting mechanism and credit assessment frameworks.
Digital Services: BRICS adopted principles to facilitate digitally delivered services across borders, covering areas such as digital trade, technology and innovation.
Services Trade: Greater emphasis was placed on expanding intra-BRICS trade in services, creating opportunities for sectors such as IT, professional services and digital businesses.

These outcomes are important because they seek to move BRICS economic cooperation from broad commitments towards practical mechanisms for trade, finance, MSMEs, digital services and resilient supply chains.

BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 FAQs

Q1: What is the BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030?

Ans: The BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 is a long-term framework to strengthen trade, investment, digital economy, financial cooperation, supply chains and sustainable development among BRICS countries.

Q2: Why was the BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030 introduced?

Ans: It was introduced to provide a long-term roadmap for economic cooperation beyond 2025 and to make BRICS economic partnerships more practical, resilient and inclusive.

Q3: What are the major focus areas of the BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2030?

Ans: The major areas include trade, services, MSMEs, global value chains, digital economy, financial cooperation, innovation, technology and sustainable development.

Q4: How does the strategy promote global trade?

Ans: It supports an open, transparent and rules-based multilateral trading system, with the WTO at its core, while seeking greater opportunities for developing countries.

Q5: How will the strategy support MSMEs?

Ans: It focuses on improving trade finance, credit access and internationalisation of MSMEs so that small businesses can participate more effectively in global trade and value chains.

BRICS at 20: Why India Should Steer BRICS Beyond Confronting the West

September 11, 2026

BRICS at 20 Latest News

India hosts the 18th BRICS Summit in New Delhi on September 12–13, 2026, as the grouping marks 20 years since its formalisation in 2006.
In this context, this article assesses what BRICS has achieved, the tensions within it, and how India can give it a practical developmental agenda instead of an anti-West posture.

BRICS vs G7: The Numbers

In 2000, Brazil, Russia, India and China together held roughly 23 per cent of global GDP (PPP), while the G7 held nearly 52 per cent.
By 2024, the positions had reversed. The expanded 11-member BRICS accounted for about 36.8 per cent, while the G7's share fell below 29 per cent.
Other key comparisons:
- Population: BRICS ~3.7 billion (49.5 per cent of world); G7 ~771 million (10 per cent)
- Nominal GDP: BRICS ~$28.5 trillion; G7 ~$46.6 trillion
- Land area: BRICS ~39.7 million sq km; G7 ~21.7 million sq km
- Oil production: BRICS ~43.6 per cent of global output
- Natural gas: BRICS ~36 per cent of global production
- Rare-earth reserves: BRICS ~72 per cent of global reserves
- Agriculture: BRICS produces 42 per cent of world wheat, 52 per cent of rice, 46 per cent of soybeans
- Growth: BRICS projected at 3.8 per cent in 2025 and 3.7 per cent in 2026, over three times the G7 average
BRICS accounts for roughly a quarter of global trade.
- Intra-BRICS merchandise trade reached $1.17 trillion in 2024, a 13-fold rise from $84 billion two decades ago.
- The bloc holds $5.2 trillion in foreign reserves and produces 78.2 per cent of global mineral coal.
However, per capita GDP tells a different story: the G7 averages around $53,000 while BRICS averages roughly $8,200.
The bloc's weight comes from population and resource scale, not individual prosperity.

Evolution of BRICS

BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) began in 2006, following a Goldman Sachs projection identifying these economies as future growth engines.
It evolved from a foreign ministers' dialogue into a leaders' forum. The first summit was held in Yekaterinburg, Russia, in 2009.
South Africa joined in 2010.
In 2024, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia and the UAE were added.
Indonesia became the 11th member in January 2025.
BRICS has grown from an economic grouping into a geopolitical entity presenting itself as the voice of the Global South.
Yet its central grievance remains unchanged: global institutions have not kept pace with the shift in economic and political power.

India's Strategic Engagement

India's participation reflects multi-alignment underpinned by strategic autonomy. New Delhi engages simultaneously with BRICS, the G20, the Quad and the SCO without alliance commitments.
For India, multi-alignment is about creating room for manoeuvre, not choosing between power centres.
India's institutional contribution is significant. At the 2012 New Delhi summit, India proposed a BRICS development bank, which became the New Development Bank (NDB).
- By mid-2026, the NDB had approved about $44 billion across 141 projects.

Divergences: Anti-West Bloc or Economic Forum?

The most fundamental tension is over purpose. China and Russia position BRICS as a counterweight to Western dominance and the dollar.
Beijing has driven expansion to project leadership of the Global South. Moscow, excluded from SWIFT and under sanctions, sees BRICS as an economic lifeline.
India and Brazil view BRICS as an economic and reform-oriented grouping. India does not share the enthusiasm for confronting the West.
Two episodes illustrate this:
- In 2023, Russia demanded payment for oil in yuan. India refused, insisting on dollars or rupees.
- In February 2026, India signed a framework trade agreement with the US, reportedly agreeing to halt Russian oil purchases in exchange for reduced tariffs, prioritising national interest over bloc solidarity.

Expansion and the Consensus Problem

Expansion has introduced sharp contradictions. At the BRICS Foreign Ministers' meeting in New Delhi in May 2026, members failed to agree on a joint declaration because of a direct confrontation between Iran and the UAE, who are on opposite sides of an active conflict.
India, as host, issued a chair's statement noting "differing views" on West Asia. Since BRICS works on consensus, expansion has made agreement on geopolitical crises far harder.

The Dollar Question

US President Donald Trump has threatened 100 per cent tariffs on BRICS nations if they create a new currency. This has largely shelved the idea of a single BRICS currency.
Members have instead moved towards bilateral settlement in national currencies:
- Russia and China settle over 90 per cent of trade in ruble and yuan.
- Russia and India have moved about 90 per cent of direct payments to national currencies through Special Rupee Vostro Accounts authorised by the RBI.
- India and the UAE have run a rupee-dirham system since July 2023.
- India and Indonesia operationalised a rupee-rupiah framework in July 2026, with local-currency trade rising 163 per cent to $8.45 billion in the first two months of 2026.
The BRICS Pay system, to be unveiled at the New Delhi summit, will link Russia's SPFS, China's CIPS, India's UPI and Brazil's Pix, allowing settlement without dollar correspondent banks.
India favours interoperable central bank digital currencies over a supranational currency, reflecting its UPI experience.
Yet the dollar still holds 57.13 per cent of global central bank reserves (Q1 2026), and no BRICS member is building rupee, yuan or rand reserves at scale.

Pakistan's Membership Bid

Pakistan applied for membership in November 2023, but its bid remains contentious due to recurring balance-of-payments crises, IMF dependence, its record on terrorism, political instability and weak policy continuity.
Its dependence on China could increase Beijing's influence, and it has limited capacity to contribute to the BRICS agenda.

Conclusion

The Iran-Israel-US conflict and the Russia-Ukraine war will test India's ability to secure a joint declaration. Visits by Xi Jinping and Vladimir Putin offer scope for high-level consultations.
Beyond geopolitics, the summit will focus on resilient supply chains, reform of global financial institutions, strengthening the NDB and expanding intra-BRICS trade.
Over the next decade, India can preserve the reform agenda while adding digital public infrastructure, climate finance, health cooperation, critical minerals, local-currency payments and inclusive connectivity.

Source: IE

BRICS at 20 FAQs

Q1: Why is BRICS at 20 significant for India?

Ans: BRICS at 20 provides India an opportunity to steer the grouping towards practical development, institutional reform, resilient supply chains and inclusive Global South cooperation.

Q2: How has BRICS evolved since its formation?

Ans: BRICS began with four economies in 2006, became a leaders’ forum in 2009, expanded further and emerged as a broader geopolitical grouping.

Q3: What is India’s strategic approach towards BRICS?

Ans: India follows multi-alignment and strategic autonomy, engaging simultaneously with BRICS, G20, Quad and SCO without committing itself to any alliance.

Q4: Why does India oppose turning BRICS into an anti-Western bloc?

Ans: India views BRICS primarily as an economic and reform-oriented grouping and does not support transforming it into a platform for confronting Western powers.

Q5: What should India prioritise during its BRICS chairship?

Ans: India should prioritise digital infrastructure, climate finance, health cooperation, critical minerals, local-currency payments, resilient supply chains and inclusive connectivity.

Mapping India’s Informal Economy

September 11, 2026

Informal Economy Latest News

For the first time, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has released district-level estimates on the informal economy, drawing on the Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector Enterprises (ASUSE), 2025.
The data covers the unincorporated non-agricultural sector—broadly, establishments engaged in manufacturing, trade and other services.
The district-level estimates provide a more granular picture of women’s participation, wages, enterprise ownership and the geographical concentration of informal economic activity, which can help improve evidence-based policymaking.

Women’s Share in Informal Work

The data reveals a striking geographical divide in women’s participation among informal workers.
- Highest women’s participation: Nirmal, Telangana (78% of all its informal workers are women); Imphal East, Manipur (70%); Nizamabad, Telangana (70%); Jagtial, Telangana (69%); and Bishnupur, Manipur (66%).
- Lowest women’s participation: Srinagar, J&K (11%); Hathras, Uttar Pradesh (11%); Banaskantha, Gujarat (11%); Marigaon, Assam (9%); and Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand (7%).
All the top 10 districts for women’s share are located in eastern or northeastern India. 22 of the 25 districts with the highest female participation are from the region, with the remaining three in Jharkhand and Odisha.
At the other end, Rudraprayag records just 7%. The all-India average is around 29%, while women constitute at least one-third of the informal workforce in 237 districts.
Telangana’s presence among the leading districts also highlights the importance of state- and district-specific socio-economic factors.

The Pay Divide

High female participation does not necessarily translate into uniformly higher earnings.
Among districts where women constitute at least half of the informal workforce, South West Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, is identified as the best-paying district.
Here, annual emoluments per hired worker is around ₹1.71 lakh, compared with an all-India average of about ₹1.3 lakh.
This underlines the need to examine both participation and the quality of employment, including remuneration, productivity and access to better economic opportunities.

Women’s Enterprise Ownership

The district-level data also reveals a strong relationship between women’s participation in the workforce and women’s ownership of enterprises.
Districts with high female participation tend to have a high proportion of female-owned proprietary establishments.
Nirmal, which tops the female workforce participation ranking, also has nearly 80% of proprietary establishments owned by women.
This suggests that women’s economic participation in some regions is not confined to being workers; it also extends to entrepreneurship and ownership of informal enterprises.

Economic Activity Is Highly Concentrated

The distribution of informal economic activity is very different when measured by the absolute number of workers and establishments rather than women’s participation.
North 24 Parganas, West Bengal has the largest number of informal workers—about 21.3 lakh—and around 16.6 lakh establishments.
The top 10 districts by number of establishments account for around 11% of the total Gross Value Added (GVA) generated by the sector. The top 50 districts account for almost one-third of the sector’s GVA.
Thus, while women’s participation is particularly high in several northeastern districts, the scale of informal economic activity is concentrated in a relatively smaller set of districts across India.

Significance for Policy

The findings highlight three interconnected policy concerns -
- Women’s labour-force participation: High female representation in informal work needs to be converted into productive and remunerative employment.
- Women-led entrepreneurship: High female ownership of proprietary enterprises can be leveraged through credit, skilling, digitalisation and market access.
- Regional targeting: Large inter-district variations demonstrate the need for granular, locally tailored policies rather than one-size-fits-all interventions.
Importance and challenges of the informal sector: It contributes significantly to employment, livelihoods and economic activity, while often operating outside the institutional protections available to formal workers.
Why district-level data matters:

The report covers 757 districts, although geographical coverage can vary because of administrative changes, including the creation of new districts and changes in district boundaries.
District-level data can help identify districts requiring focused measures for women’s employment, skilling, entrepreneurship, credit access and social protection.

Conclusion

The first district-level estimates of the informal economy provide an important statistical foundation for understanding India’s gendered and geographically uneven informal economy.
Better granular statistics can strengthen cooperative and competitive federalism, outcome-based governance and evidence-based policymaking, particularly for achieving women-led development and inclusive growth.

Source: IE

Informal Economy FAQs

Q1: What does the first-ever district-level data on India’s informal sector reveal?

Ans: Sharp regional disparities in women employment, with Nirmal (Telangana) recording the highest female share at 78%.

Q2: Why is high female participation in informal work not necessarily synonymous with women’s economic empowerment?

Ans: Because participation must be assessed alongside wages, job quality, social security, productivity and enterprise ownership.

Q3: What is the significance of women’s ownership of informal enterprises for inclusive growth?

Ans: High female ownership of proprietary establishments indicates women’s role as economic decision-makers.

Q4: How can district-level data improve the governance of India’s informal economy?

Ans: Granular data can enable targeted, evidence-based interventions by identifying district-specific gaps in employment.

Q5: What does the geographical concentration of India’s informal economic activity imply for policymaking?

Ans: Policymaking should combine region-specific strategies with national measures to improve productivity, formalisation, etc.

FCNR(B) Deposits – Who Finally Bears the Foreign Currency Exchange Risk

September 11, 2026

FCNR(B) Deposits Latest News

Indian banks mobilised over $127 billion through FCNR(B) deposits under a special RBI swap facility, but with the window now closed, attention has turned to who bears the foreign exchange risk on the principal and interest.

About FCNR(B) Deposits

Foreign Currency Non-Resident (Bank) deposits, or FCNR(B) deposits, are term deposits that non-resident Indians can maintain with Indian banks in foreign currency rather than in rupees.
The key feature is that both the principal and interest are denominated in foreign currency, typically US dollars.
This protects the depositor from rupee depreciation, a significant attraction for NRIs who would otherwise see the value of their savings erode if the rupee weakened.
These deposits are usually held for maturities of one to five years and are a long-standing instrument for attracting foreign currency into India's banking system.

The Special Swap Facility

The RBI introduced a special swap facility in June 2026 to encourage NRIs to place money in FCNR(B) deposits.
The context was pressure on the rupee from high oil prices and India's need to strengthen its foreign exchange reserves amid the West Asia conflict.
Response - the scheme attracted far more than anticipated:
- Initial target: around $50 billion
- Actual mobilisation: more than $127 billion
Given the scale of inflows, the RBI closed the window for fresh FCNR(B) deposits on August 31, 2026.
For banks, the scheme provided a relatively cheap source of foreign currency funding. For the country, it added substantially to foreign exchange reserves at a time of external pressure.

How the Risk Is Split

Because these deposits typically carry three-to-five-year maturities, the question of who bears currency risk when principal and interest fall due becomes important.
The answer is that the risk has been divided between the central bank and commercial banks.
The RBI Covers the Principal
- Under the swap arrangement, the RBI shields banks from foreign exchange risk on the principal amount. The central bank bears the cost of hedging this exposure.
- Estimates place this hedging cost at up to 3% annually.
- In simple terms, the RBI is protecting the dollar value of the principal against movements in the rupee-dollar exchange rate, absorbing the cost of that protection itself.
Banks Handle the Interest
- The swap facility does not cover the interest that banks must pay depositors in dollars.
- This means banks have to arrange the dollars themselves for interest payments and manage that foreign exchange exposure independently.

The RBI's Cost-Benefit Position

The RBI's position is not purely a cost. The foreign currency received through these deposits adds to India's reserves, which can then be invested.
Recouping Reserves
- By August 7, 2026, the RBI had recouped $31.2 billion of its foreign currency assets, equivalent to 55% of the amount mobilised at that point.
- Part of this may be invested in US securities, which offer higher yields.
Potential Returns
- Estimates suggest the RBI could earn around 4.5% to 5% on the foreign exchange reserves generated through these deposits.
- This could more than offset a hedging cost of up to 3%, assuming the foreign currency holdings are hedged for five years.
The Scale of the Cost
- Research assuming FCNR(B) mobilisation of $65-70 billion and a 3% annual hedging cost calculated:
- Annual notional cost: about $2.1 billion
- Cumulative cost over five years: about $10.5 billion
- Against current reserves of around $700 billion, this works out to roughly 1.45% of the reserve stock over five years, a modest figure in relative terms.

Unhedged Exposure Among Banks

Where the risk becomes more concerning is on the interest side.
Who Is Hedging - pattern varies by type of bank:
- Foreign banks are largely hedging this exposure.
- Most state-run banks and several private-sector Indian lenders have left it unhedged.
Why Banks Are Not Hedging
- The main reason cited is cost. Hedging the foreign exchange risk on interest payments for three-to-five-year deposits costs banks about 3% a year.
- Since interest on these deposits is paid at maturity rather than periodically, some banks have chosen to avoid that cost upfront. Their plan is to buy dollars in the spot market when the payment actually falls due, rather than locking in protection in advance.
- One banker at a mid-sized state-run lender indicated the bank expected to handle payments through spot purchases when required.

What Happens If the Rupee Weakens

The consequences of leaving this exposure unhedged can be illustrated simply.
Consider a bank that must pay $1 million in interest:
- If the dollar costs Rs. 95, the payment requires Rs. 9.5 crore.
- If the rupee weakens and the dollar rises to Rs. 100 at maturity, the same payment requires Rs. 10 crore.
A bank that has hedged would be protected against this movement. A lender that has left the exposure unhedged absorbs the higher rupee cost directly.

The Broader Assessment

The FCNR(B) scheme achieved its immediate objective. It brought in substantially more foreign currency than targeted at a time when the rupee was under pressure and reserves needed strengthening.
The RBI has taken on the exposure associated with the principal through its swap, and appears likely to cover that cost through returns on invested reserves.
Banks continue to face currency risk on the interest payments, and a substantial share of that exposure remains unhedged by choice.
This means a portion of the currency risk has been deferred rather than removed, surfacing only when the deposits mature.

Source: TH

FCNR(B) Deposits FAQs

Q1: What are FCNR(B) deposits?

Ans: Foreign Currency Non-Resident (Bank) deposits are term deposits held by NRIs with Indian banks in foreign currency, protecting depositors from rupee depreciation.

Q2: How much was mobilised under the special swap facility?

Ans: More than $127 billion, against an initial target of about $50 billion. The window closed on August 31, 2026.

Q3: What does the RBI swap facility cover?

Ans: It shields banks from foreign exchange risk on the principal amount, with the RBI bearing the hedging cost of up to 3%.

Q4: Who bears the risk on interest payments?

Ans: Banks must arrange dollars for interest payments and manage that exposure themselves, as the swap does not cover interest.

Q5: Why have many Indian banks left the interest exposure unhedged?

Ans: Because hedging costs about 3% a year, and some banks prefer to buy dollars in the spot market when payments fall due at maturity.

Digital Bharat Nidhi

September 11, 2026

Digital Bharat Nidhi Latest News

Recently, Digital Bharat Nidhi (DBN) under Department of Telecommunications (DoT) signed an Agreement for implementation of the Amended BharatNet Program (ABP) in the State under the State-led model today at Sanchar Bhawan, New Delhi.

About Digital Bharat Nidhi

It was formerly known as the Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF).
It now operates under the Telecommunication Act, 2023.
Mandate: It has a mandate to support universal service through promoting access and delivery of telecommunication service in underserved rural, remote and urban areas.
It is an attached office of the Department of Telecommunications (DoT), Ministry of Communications.
Objectives of Digital Bharat Nidhi
- Support universal service through promoting access to and delivery of telecommunication services in underserved rural, remote and urban areas;
- Support research and development of telecommunication services, technologies, and products;
- Support pilot projects, consultancy assistance and advisory support towards provision of service under clause (a) above;
- Support introduction of telecommunication services, technologies, and products;
Funding: The contributions made by telecom companies towards the Digital Bharat Nidhi will first be credited to the Consolidated Fund of India (CFI).
- The balance to the credit of the DBN is not lapsed at the end of the FY.
- Funds collected under the DBN will be used to support promoting access to and delivery of telecommunication services in underserved rural, remote and urban areas; fund research and development of telecommunication services, technologies, and products.
Administration: Administration of DBN is managed by the Administrator appointed by the Central Government of India.
The administrator selects “DBN implementers” through “bidding” or invitation of applications from eligible persons.

Source: PIB

Digital Bharat Nidhi FAQ's

Q1: Digital Bharat Nidhi operates under which act?

Ans: It now operates under the Telecommunication Act, 2023.

Q2: What is the mandate of Digital Bharat Nidhi?

Ans: It has a mandate to support universal service through promoting access and delivery of telecommunication service in underserved rural, remote and urban areas.

Daily Editorial Analysis 11 September 2026

September 11, 2026

The Global War on Terror, An Empowered Iran

Context

The global war on terror, launched by the United States after September 11, 2001, sought to eliminate terrorism and contain threats to American interests.
However, its interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq produced unintended consequences that strengthened Iran.
By removing hostile regimes, creating political vacuums, and intensifying sectarian conflicts, U.S. actions enabled Tehran to emerge as a powerful regional actor.
Iran’s rise demonstrates how military intervention can generate outcomes contrary to its original objectives.

The Removal of Iran’s Strategic Rivals

Before 2001, Iran faced strategic pressure from two hostile neighbours: the Taliban in Afghanistan and Saddam Hussein’s Iraq.
The U.S. invasions of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003 removed these governments, eliminating Iran’s most dangerous regional adversaries.
In Iraq, the overthrow of Saddam’s Sunni-dominated regime enabled the emergence of a Shia-led political order with strong connections to Tehran.
Iran subsequently developed substantial influence over Iraqi political institutions, security organisations, and armed militias.
Iraq gradually shifted from a hostile neighbour to a strategic partner, significantly improving Iran’s regional position.

Sectarianism and the Expansion of Proxy Warfare

The Shia-Sunni Divide
- The invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq destabilised existing political structures and intensified Shia-Sunni sectarian tensions.
- The weakening of central authority encouraged religious identity-based mobilisation and armed conflict.
- In Iraq, Sunni insurgent groups and Shia militias competed for influence, while regional powers supported opposing factions.
- Iran strengthened Shia militias, whereas Saudi Arabia and other regional actors supported Sunni political and militant forces.
- This proxy warfare increased Tehran’s influence and undermined the objective of isolating Iran.
Iran’s Role in Counter-Terrorism
- The emergence of ISIS paradoxically strengthened Iran’s regional position.
- Tehran became a crucial military supporter of the Iraqi government, deploying advisers and coordinating Shia militias through the Quds Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.
- Iran’s participation in the anti-ISIS campaign provided strategic legitimacy for its military presence in Iraq and Syria.
- Although the United States and Iran briefly shared an interest in defeating ISIS, meaningful cooperation failed to emerge.
- The U.S. designation of Iran as part of the Axis of Evil in 2002 reflected continuing hostility and prevented sustained dialogue.

The Axis of Resistance and Forward Defence

Iran’s regional strategy developed around the Axis of Resistance, a network of political, military, and social organisations extending across Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine.
Its major members include Hezbollah, Hamas, the Houthis, and Shia militias in Iraq.
These groups provide Iran with strategic depth and enable it to exert influence beyond its national borders.

The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and Asymmetric Power

Iran’s military strategy has focused heavily on the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), particularly its Quds Force.
The IRGC controls important strategic assets and coordinates Iran’s regional partnerships.
Unlike conventional military forces, the IRGC specialises in asymmetric warfare, using military advisers, intelligence, missile capabilities, and allied armed groups to project Iranian power.
This strategy allows Iran to challenge the United States and Israel without matching their conventional military superiority.
Proxy networks have therefore become a central pillar of Iranian defence policy.

Power Vacuums after 2011

The S. withdrawal from Iraq and the Arab Spring in 2011 created political and security vacuums.
Iran was well positioned to exploit these developments because it already possessed established networks of allies and military influence.
In Iraq, Iranian-backed forces became important actors in the fight against ISIS.
In Syria, Tehran intervened to defend Bashar al-Assad’s government, protecting its major state ally and preserving access to Hezbollah in Lebanon.
The prolonged Forever Wars consumed American resources and attention, allowing Iran to consolidate its influence.
Its ability to operate through local partners reduced the costs of direct intervention while increasing strategic reach.

The Transformation of Iran into a Regional Power

The removal of hostile regimes, collapse of political institutions, and rise of sectarian conflicts enabled Tehran to expand its influence across West Asia.
Iran’s regional power rests on strategic depth, proxy warfare, political alliances, military networks, and nationalism.
The IRGC coordinates regional operations, while allied governments and armed groups provide buffers against external threats.
This transformation illustrates the limitations of strategies based exclusively on military containment.
By attempting to reshape West Asia through intervention, the United States unintentionally created conditions for Iran’s rise.

Conclusion

Although the United States sought to eliminate terrorism and contain Iran, its interventions removed Iran’s strategic rivals, destabilised neighbouring countries, and enabled Tehran to expand its influence.
Iran capitalised on these developments through the Axis of Resistance, the IRGC, and an extensive network of regional alliances.
Iran’s present capacity to resist pressure from the United States and Israel reflects the cumulative advantages it gained during the past two decades.
Its rise demonstrates that military interventions can generate unintended strategic consequences, particularly when they disrupt regional balances without establishing durable political stability.

The Global War on Terror, An Empowered Iran FAQs

Q1. Why did Iran’s regional influence increase after 2001?
Ans. Iran’s influence increased because the U.S. invasions removed its hostile neighbours, Afghanistan’s Taliban regime and Saddam Hussein’s Iraq.

Q2. How did sectarianism strengthen Iran?
Ans. Sectarian conflicts enabled Iran to support Shia militias and expand its regional influence.

Q3. What is the Axis of Resistance?
Ans. The Axis of Resistance is a network of Iran and allied political and military groups across West Asia.

Q4. How did ISIS benefit Iran strategically?
Ans. ISIS’s rise enabled Iran to become a key military supporter of Iraq and strengthen its regional position.

Q5. What is the main lesson of the global war on terror?
Ans. Military interventions can produce unintended consequences by creating power vacuums and strengthening regional rivals.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 2026 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Folk Arts of Mizoram, Dances, Music, Crafts, Significance

September 11, 2026

The Folk Arts of Mizoram are closely connected with the agricultural cycle, community life and festivals of the Mizo people. They include traditional dances, folk songs, handwoven textiles and bamboo and cane crafts. Many of these traditions continue to be practised during festivals, social gatherings and cultural events.

Major Folk Arts of Mizoram

The Folk Arts of Mizoram can be broadly grouped into folk dances, music and oral traditions, textiles and crafts. These traditions reflect the diverse communities of the state and their close relationship with nature, agriculture and community life.

Folk Dances

Cheraw (Bamboo Dance): Cheraw is the most well-known traditional dance of Mizoram and is popularly known as the bamboo dance. Dancers move between pairs of bamboo poles that are opened and closed rhythmically by performers sitting on the ground. The dance is usually performed by women in traditional attire and is now a major feature of festivals and cultural programmes.
Khuallam: Khuallam, meaning the “Dance of the Guests,” is traditionally performed to welcome guests during important community occasions. Dancers wear traditional shawls and perform to the rhythm of Darbu, a set of traditional gongs. The dance reflects the importance given to hospitality and community participation in Mizo society.
Sarlamkai: Sarlamkai is a traditional warrior dance associated with the Pawi and Mara communities of southern Mizoram. It was historically connected with celebrations following victory in warfare. The dance is performed in groups to the accompaniment of gongs, drums and cymbals.
Chailam: Chailam is closely associated with Chapchar Kut, the major spring festival of Mizoram. Men and women dance together in a circle to the accompaniment of drums and other traditional instruments. It remains one of the important group dances performed during the festival.
Chawnglaizawn: Chawnglaizawn is a traditional dance of the Pawi community. It is performed during festivals and celebrations and is also associated with hunting traditions. Dancers perform in groups to drum beats, using colourful shawls to add movement to the performance.
Chheihlam: Chheihlam developed from older Mizo traditions of song and dance. It is performed to Chheih hla, with dancers and singers sitting or standing together in a circle. Improvised verses, rhythmic movements, clapping and drum beats are important features of the performance.
Tlanglam: Tlanglam is a popular traditional dance performed across Mizoram. Both men and women participate in it, and different regions have their own variations. The dance is accompanied by traditional music and is commonly performed during social and festive occasions.
Zangtalam: Zangtalam is a traditional dance associated with the Paihte community. Men and women participate in the performance, with a drummer guiding the rhythm and movements.

Folk Music and Traditional Instruments

Mizo folk music is closely connected with dance, festivals and community gatherings. Traditional songs preserve stories, memories and aspects of everyday life. Several indigenous instruments accompany these performances.

Khuang: Khuang is a traditional drum made from a hollowed tree trunk with animal skin stretched over its ends. It is one of the most important instruments in Mizo cultural life and is widely used during dances and community ceremonies.
Darbu: Darbu consists of a set of three brass gongs of different sizes. It produces different notes and is traditionally played by three performers. It is particularly associated with dances such as Khuallam.
Bengbung: Bengbung is a traditional xylophone-like instrument made from wooden bars. It was traditionally played by girls and forms part of the older musical traditions of Mizoram.
Rawchhem: Rawchhem is a traditional wind instrument with a structure similar to a bagpipe. It represents the distinctive character of indigenous Mizo musical traditions.
Tingtang: Tingtang is a traditional stringed instrument used in Mizo folk music.
Seki: Seki is a traditional instrument made from the horn of the mithun, an animal with cultural and economic importance in the region.

K.C. Runremsangi, popularly known as the “Queen of Mizo Folk Song,” has received national recognition for her contribution to Mizo folk music, including the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award and the Padma Shri.

Folk Textiles

Traditional weaving is an important part of the Folk Arts of Mizoram. Mizo women have traditionally woven textiles using the loin loom, producing distinctive patterns and colours associated with different communities and occasions.

Mizo Puanchei: Mizo Puanchei is one of the most colourful traditional textiles of Mizoram. It is an important part of women's traditional dress and is worn during festivals, dances, ceremonies and other important occasions. It is particularly associated with Cheraw and other cultural performances.
Tawlhlohpuan: Tawlhlohpuan is a traditionally heavy and compactly woven fabric. Its name is associated with the idea of standing firm and not retreating, reflecting its traditional association with courage and bravery.
Hmaram: Hmaram is an old traditional textile of the Mizo people. Its designs include motifs inspired by the flora of Mizoram and reflect the close connection between weaving and the natural environment.
Ngotekherh: Ngotekherh is a traditional cloth woven on the loin loom. It is recognised for its white background and black stripes and forms part of the traditional clothing heritage of Mizoram.
Pawndum: Pawndum is traditionally a black cloth with coloured stripes. It has been used on different social and ceremonial occasions and is also associated with the Khuallam dance.

Folk Crafts

Bamboo and Cane Craft: Bamboo and cane are widely used by Mizo artisans to make baskets, mats, furniture, household articles and decorative items. The availability of bamboo and the skills developed around it have made bamboo and cane work an important part of Mizoram's craft tradition.
Traditional Ornaments: Traditional Mizo ornaments include necklaces and other accessories made from beads and locally available materials. Examples include Thihu, Thifen and Darthi, which are associated with traditional dress and ceremonies.
Vakiria: Vakiria is a distinctive traditional bamboo headdress decorated with feathers and beetle wings. It is worn by women during festive dances and is particularly associated with traditional performances such as Cheraw.

Festivals and Folk Arts

Mizo folk arts are closely linked with the traditional Kut festivals, which are connected with the agricultural cycle.

Chapchar Kut: A spring festival celebrated after the clearing of forests for jhum cultivation. It is marked by traditional dances, music and community celebrations.
Mim Kut: A harvest-related festival associated with maize and the remembrance of ancestors. It is generally observed around August–September.
Pawl Kut: A harvest festival celebrated after the paddy harvest and marked by community feasting, music and traditional performances.

These festivals provide an important setting for the continued practice of Mizo dances, songs, traditional dress and crafts.

Folk Arts of Mizoram Significance

Preserving cultural identity: Folk traditions preserve the customs, stories, clothing and practices of Mizo communities.
Strengthening community life: Group dances and festivals encourage collective participation and reinforce social bonds.
Supporting livelihoods: Weaving, bamboo work and other traditional crafts provide income to local artisans.
Using local resources: Bamboo, cane, wood and natural fibres are widely used in traditional crafts.
Promoting cultural heritage: GI recognition and cultural festivals have helped bring Mizo textiles and crafts to wider audiences.

Folk Arts of Mizoram FAQs

Q1: What are the major folk dances of Mizoram?

Ans: Major folk dances of Mizoram include Cheraw, Khuallam, Sarlamkai, Chailam, Chawnglaizawn, Chheihlam, Tlanglam and Zangtalam.

Q2: Which is the most famous folk dance of Mizoram?

Ans: Cheraw, popularly known as the Bamboo Dance, is the most famous folk dance of Mizoram.

Q3: Which folk dance of Mizoram is performed with bamboo poles?

Ans: Cheraw is performed with pairs of bamboo poles that are rhythmically opened and closed while dancers move between them.

Q4: Which folk dance of Mizoram is associated with Chapchar Kut?

Ans: Chailam is closely associated with Chapchar Kut, the major spring festival of Mizoram.

Q5: Which folk dance of Mizoram is associated with warrior traditions?

Ans: Sarlamkai is a folk dance associated with the Pawi and Mara communities and has historical links with warrior traditions and victory celebrations.

Why Egg, Chicken and Milk Prices Are Unlikely to Fall Soon

September 11, 2026

Egg, chicken and milk prices are unlikely to fall sharply in the near future because the cost of producing them remains high. A major reason is the rising price of animal feed, especially maize, soybean meal and other protein-rich ingredients.

Why Are Feed Prices Rising?

Feed prices have risen mainly because the cost of maize and protein-rich ingredients used in animal feed has increased. These ingredients form a large part of poultry and cattle feed, so even a moderate rise in their prices can increase the overall cost of livestock production.

Maize is the main source of energy in animal feed.

It accounts for around 55-65% of broiler feed, used for chickens raised for meat.
It accounts for around 50-60% of layer feed, used for egg-producing chickens.
It makes up around 15-20% of cattle feed.

Livestock also need protein for growth and production. This comes mainly from soybean meal and oilseed cakes, which are left after extracting oil from soybean, mustard, groundnut, sunflower and cottonseed.

Soybean meal accounts for around 25-30% of broiler feed.
It accounts for around 18-20% of layer feed.
Oilseed cakes and meals make up around 40-50% of compound cattle feed.

The rise in prices of these ingredients has therefore pushed up the cost of feed. At Alangeyam in Erode, maize prices rose from around ₹2,537 per quintal in August 2025 to ₹2,759 in August 2026. Soybean meal prices at Indore also rose sharply from ₹38,186 per tonne to ₹58,156 per tonne over the same period, although they have eased somewhat since then.

Other protein sources have also become costlier. Groundnut oilcake, rapeseed meal, cottonseed meal and rice bran extraction have all recorded significant increases. This keeps overall feed costs high even when the price of one particular ingredient starts coming down.

Why Feed Costs May Remain High

The bigger concern now is maize, as its availability may remain under pressure in the coming months.

Lower maize cultivation: Government data shows that kharif maize acreage has fallen by 4.1%, raising concerns about future supply.
Lower production outlook: The United States Department of Agriculture has projected India's maize production at around 50 million tonnes in 2026-27, compared with a record 55.1 million tonnes in 2025-26.
Weather risks: The strengthening El Niño could also affect the upcoming rabi maize crop, adding uncertainty to future supplies.
Competition from ethanol: Maize is also used for ethanol production. If maize prices continue to rise, using more maize for ethanol could further tighten its availability for animal feed.

This creates a difficult situation for the livestock sector. Soybean meal prices have started to ease, but higher maize prices could offset this relief. As a result, the overall cost of feed may remain high even if some individual ingredients become cheaper.

Impact on Egg and Chicken Prices

Higher feed costs are directly increasing poultry production costs.

Eggs: Layer feed has risen from ₹24-26 to ₹30-32 per kg in four months. Feed accounts for around 65-70% of egg production costs.
Chicken: Broiler feed has risen from ₹40 to ₹46 per kg, taking the production cost of chicken to around ₹110 per kg.

Even when egg and chicken prices fall temporarily due to seasonal demand, high feed costs limit how much prices can decline.

Why Egg, Chicken and Milk Prices May Not Fall Soon

The recent easing in soybean meal prices offers some relief, but maize remains a major concern.

Lower supply: Kharif maize acreage has fallen by 4.1%, while the United States Department of Agriculture expects India's 2026-27 maize production at 50 million tonnes, down from a record 55.1 million tonnes in 2025-26.
Weather risk: El Niño could affect the upcoming rabi maize crop, adding further uncertainty to supplies.
Ethanol demand: Maize is also used for ethanol production. If maize prices continue to rise, the government may have to reconsider how much maize is diverted to ethanol.

This creates a difficult policy trade-off between food and feed security and ethanol blending. If feed costs remain high, egg, chicken and milk prices may also remain under pressure.

What Can Be Done?

The immediate challenge is to keep feed costs under control without disrupting other policy priorities.

Increase maize supply: Higher productivity and better storage can reduce pressure on domestic maize prices.
Balance maize use: If maize prices remain high, the government may need to reconsider its diversion for ethanol to protect animal-feed supplies.
Strengthen oilseed production: More domestic soybean, mustard and other oilseeds can improve the availability of protein-rich feed ingredients.
Improve feed efficiency: Better animal nutrition, breeds and farm practices can reduce feed costs per unit of milk, meat or eggs.

The issue is therefore not just about food prices. Keeping livestock products affordable also requires securing the feed that goes into producing them.

Why Egg Chicken and Milk Prices Are Unlikely to Fall Soon FAQs

Q1: Why do rising feed prices affect the prices of eggs, chicken and milk?

Ans: Because feed is a major input in livestock production, higher feed costs increase the overall cost of producing these products.

Q2: What are the major components of livestock feed?

Ans: Maize is a major source of energy, while soybean meal and other oilseed cakes provide protein needed for animal growth and production.

Q3: Why has maize emerged as a major concern for the livestock sector?

Ans: Lower maize acreage, uncertain production, weather risks and competing demand from ethanol production could put pressure on maize availability and prices.

Q4: How does ethanol production create a challenge for animal-feed security?

Ans: Greater diversion of maize towards ethanol can reduce its availability for animal feed, potentially increasing feed costs and putting pressure on livestock prices.

Q5: What measures can help keep livestock products affordable?

Ans: India needs to improve maize and oilseed productivity, strengthen storage and supply chains, improve feed efficiency and balance maize allocation between animal feed and ethanol production.